Article Archive: Volume 5 Issue 1 2026

Farmers’ Characteristics and Constraints in T-aman Rice Cultivation in Bangladesh

  • Md. Jahangir Kabir1
  • Md. Shamsuzzoha2
  • Md. Raju Ahmad3
  • Nur- E -Shahrin Nurani4
  • Madhuri Rani Roy5

2. Introduction Bangladesh’s economy and rural society are strongly shaped by agriculture, which continues to play a pivotal role in employment generation, food supply, and livelihood security. Approximately four-fifths of the population are engaged in agricultural activities either directly or through related sectors, which contributes about 18.4% to the national gross domestic product [1]. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the staple food and the dominant crop, occupying approximately 80% of the cultivated land and serving as the primary source of calories for the population [2,3]. However, rapid population growth, declining cultivable land, and increasing climate variability pose serious challenges to sustaining rice production. Rice cultivation in Bangladesh follows three seasonal cycles—Aus, Aman, and Boro—among which transplanted Aman (T-aman) occupies the largest share, accounting for nearly half of the country’s total rice-growing area [4]. Despite its importance, T-aman productivity remains highly vulnerable to climatic stresses, including floods, drought spells, erratic rainfall, cold waves, and riverbank erosion. Such stresses are especially acute in northern Bangladesh, particularly in areas influenced by the Teesta and Jamuna river systems, where fragile agro-ecological conditions and limited opportunities for livelihood diversification restrict agricultural productivity. One of the most critical manifestations of agricultural vulnerability in northern Bangladesh is Monga, a recurring seasonal phenomenon of food insecurity and unemployment. Monga is most pronounced during the pre-harvest scarcity period preceding the Aman rice harvest (mid-September to mid-November) and, to a lesser extent, before the Boro harvest [5]. Poor or unstable Aman rice yields are widely recognized as a major driver of Monga, as rural livelihoods in the region are heavily dependent on agricultural wage labor and a limited number of cropping cycles. In districts such as Gaibandha, Kurigram, Rangpur, Nilphamari, and Lalmonirhat, crop failure or reduced T-aman productivity often leads to sharp income declines, food shortages, and heightened vulnerability among smallholder and landless households. Farmers’ ability to achieve stable T-aman production is constrained by multiple agronomic, environmental, and socio-economic factors. These include drought or untimely rainfall, flooding and waterlogging, lack of early-maturing or stress-tolerant varieties, inadequate access to quality seed, limited extension support, and poor access to inputs [6]. The extent to which farmers confront these problems is not uniform and may vary depending on individual characteristics. Understanding how these characteristics influence farmers’ problem confrontation is essential for designing effective extension strategies and policy interventions aimed at improving T-aman productivity and reducing Monga-related food insecurity [7]. Despite the recognized importance of T-aman rice for food security in northern Bangladesh, systematic empirical evidence on the nature and severity of problems faced by farmers—and how these problems relate to their socio-economic characteristics—remains limited [8]. Most existing studies focus on poverty, food security, or climatic vulnerability, with comparatively little attention given to farmer-level problem confrontation in T-aman cultivation. Addressing this knowledge gap is crucial for developing targeted, context-specific solutions [9]. We did the study to assess the severity of constraints encountered by farmers in cultivation. We selected Monga-affected areas of northern Bangladesh and to examine the relationship between these problems and farmers’ selected personal, economic, and communication characteristics [10]. The findings are expected to provide valuable insights for agricultural extension services, development practitioners, and policymakers seeking to enhance rice productivity and mitigate seasonal food insecurity in vulnerable regions [11]. 3. Materials and Methods Study Area The study was conducted in two villages—Rajabirat and Katabari—located in Gobindaganj Upazila of Gaibandha district, northern Bangladesh. These villages are situated approximately 20 km and 10 km northeast of the district headquarters, respectively. The study sites were selected purposively due to their high dependence on T-aman cultivation and the absence of prior empirical studies addressing farmers’ problem confrontation in T-aman production in this area. Population and Sampling An updated sampling frame comprising 1,029 T-aman farmers was compiled with support from local Sub-Assistant Agricultural Officers. From this population, 10% of farmers (n = 103) were selected. Survey Instrument and Pre-testing Information was gathered out using an interview schedule specifically designed to address the study objectives. The instrument comprised both open- and closed-ended questions and applied appropriate scaling techniques for measuring the selected variables. Before the main survey, the schedule was pilot-tested with ten T-aman farmers from outside the study area, and revisions were subsequently made to enhance clarity, relevance, and overall consistency. Measurement of Variables Farmers’ Characteristics The study examined nine independent variables: age, level of education, family size, experience, area, annual income, knowledge, extension media contact, and innovativeness. Problems Faced by Farmers in T-Aman Rice Production Problem confrontation was measured using 15 statements related to constraints in T-aman cultivation. The severity of each problem was rated by respondents using a four-point scale ranging from high (3) to not at all (0).An overall problem confrontation score was calculated for each farmer by compiling the responses, yielding a possible range of 0–45, with higher values indicating greater severity of problems.To prioritise individual constraints, a (PCI) was calculated. Hypothesis Testing The null hypothesis posited that farmers’ problem confrontation in T-aman cultivation was not significantly associated with their selected socio-economic and communication characteristics. Data Collection Procedure The researcher collected data via direct, face-to-face interviews during October 2012. Interviews were carried out at respondents’ homes or fields during their leisure time. Rapport was established prior to interviews to ensure accurate and reliable responses. Statistical Treatment and Data Analysis The collected data were coded and analyzed using SPSS software (version 11.5). The data were summarized using descriptive statistical measures, including frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations. Relationships between farmers’ characteristics and problem confrontation scores were analyzed using Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient (r) at the 5% probability level (p ≤ 0.05). 4. Result 4.1 Socio-economic and Farm Characteristics of the Farmers The linkage between selected farmer attributes and problems facing were analyzed using Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficients, as presented in Table 4.11. The variables show negative or non-significant relationship. 4.4 Severity Ranking of Problems in T-aman Cultivation The severity of 15 selected problems was assessed using the Problems Confrontation Index (PCI). PCI values ranged from 69.6 to 279.5 (Table 4.12). High cost of production ranked … Read more

Crop Establishment technique in Redgram- A contingency measure forrealizing higher productivity

  • Anitta Fanish S
  • G Guru

Introduction Redgram (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp) is the most vital Kharif pulse crop in India, predominantly cultivated under rainfed conditions. It occupies 3.89 million hectares, contributing 3.02 million tonnes to the national pulse pool; however, its average productivity remains stagnant at 776 kg/ha. The primary barrier to higher yields is low productivity during early growth stages, exacerbated by soil moisture stress and climatic aberrations in the Indian subtropics. During the monsoon, redgram is particularly sensitive to waterlogging, which restricts soil aeration, hinders nutrient uptake, and impairs root nodulation. These unfavorable conditions foster disease incidence and high seedling mortality, leading to a significantly sparse plant stand [1]. Strategically maintaining an optimal plant population in the face of these biotic and abiotic pressures is a major challenge for sustainable production. Furthermore, the late onset of rains often delays sowing, shortening the crop’s vegetative window. To counteract these constraints, transplanting has emerged as a promising alternative. By raising seedlings in a nursery, typically in polyethylene bags and transplanting them into the main field once established, farmers can bypass early-season stressors and ensure a uniform plant stand [2, 3]. Established transplants exhibit rapid early growth and greater competitiveness against weeds compared to direct-sown crops. This technique essentially allows for “virtual” early sowing, enabling the crop to capitalize on the full growing season even when monsoon rains are delayed. However, research regarding optimized nursery protocols, ideal seedling age, and main field configurations is currently limited. Consequently, this study was undertaken to evaluate the feasibility and refine the technical and economic suitability of redgram transplanting for the agro-climatic conditions of Tamil Nadu.   Materials and Methods A two-year field study (2022–2023) was conducted at the main farm of the Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore. The experimental site is characterized by a tropical sub-humid climate, featuring an average annual rainfall of 647 mm, with mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures of 33°C and 23°C, respectively. The study was conducted on double-cropped irrigated upland. Prior to the trial, the field followed a Rice–Blackgram rotation. The long-duration redgram variety ‘CO 8’ was utilized for the experiment across both years (2022 and 2023) to assess the efficacy of transplanting as a productivity-sustaining contingency measure. In the field experiments, two transplanting methods (flat-bed vs ridge-furrow) and 4 combinations of nursery raising techniques along with age of seedlings (viz., raising seedling in pro tray or polyethylene bags and transplanting these at 20 and 25 days after seeding; and a control involving in situ seeding in main field simultaneous transplanting with that in portrays and polyethylene bags, were laid out in a factorial RBD with 3 replications. The long-duration variety ‘CO 8’ was selected for its moderate wilt resistance and suitability for the region. Sowing was initiated in mid-July for both experimental years. Prior to sowing, seeds were treated with Rhizobium and Phosphorus Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) at a rate of 1 kg/ha each to enhance nitrogen fixation and nutrient availability. Transplanting of the long-duration ‘CO 8’ variety was synchronized with the onset of monsoon rains, occurring during the first fortnight of August in both 2022 and 2023. To evaluate the impact of land configuration on seedling establishment, two methods were employed: Flatbed Method, Pits were excavated to a depth of 15–20 cm at 30 cm intervals and Ridge Method, Seedlings were transplanted onto 30 cm high ridges. During transplanting, polyethylene bags were carefully removed to ensure the root zone and surrounding soil ball remained undisturbed, maintaining a uniform spacing of 120 x 30 cm across all treatments. A basal fertilizer dose of 25:50:25:20 kg/ha of NPKS + Zn was applied to all plots. Water management was strictly monitored: Immediate irrigation after transplanting, followed by a life-saving irrigation at 10 days after transplanting (DAT). Supplemental irrigation was provided during the critical branching and pod development stages to mitigate rainfall deficits. The crop reached maturity and was harvested during the first week of March in both 2023 and 2024. Biometric data, including seed yield, yield attributes, and economic indicators, were recorded and subjected to rigorous statistical analysis to interpret the efficacy of the transplanting technology. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Seedling Age and Survival The experiment highlighted the distinct advantage of utilizing 25-day-old seedlings as a robust crop contingency measure. Raising seedlings in polyethylene bags ensured a high density of healthy, vigorous plants, which effectively buffered against the initial field stresses that often diminish direct-sown populations.   Comparative Performance of Transplanting Methods The crop exhibited significant variation in performance based on both the land configuration and the timing of transplanting. Seedlings transplanted on ridges showed superior root architecture and vegetative growth compared to those in flatbed pits, likely due to enhanced aeration and drainage. Variations in the yield attributes like number of pods per plant and grain weight were directly correlated to the seedling age at the time of field transfer. In respect to economic Viability, While transplanting requires an initial investment in nursery management, the resulting increase in seed yield and plant stand stability significantly improved the overall economics of cultivation compared to conventional methods [4]. The subsequent sections detail the quantitative data recorded over the two-year study period, focusing on the refined schedules that maximize redgram productivity in the Tamil Nadu region. Impact of Land Configuration on Yield and Growth The primary agronomic constraint in redgram productivity is suboptimal plant population, driven by delayed monsoon onset and high seedling mortality from waterlogging. This study demonstrates that land configuration is critical for mitigating these risks. Ridge transplanting achieved a 15.5% (210 kg/ha) yield increase over flat surfaces, regardless of seedling age or nursery method. The yield advantage on ridges is primarily attributed to a 15.6% increase in pods per plant, while 100-seed weight and seeds per plant remained consistent. Ridges provide superior drainage, maintaining soil aeration and nutrient uptake while preventing the negative impacts of waterlogging on nodulation and the rhizosphere micro-environment [8]. Consequently, plants on ridges exhibited more vigorous biometrics, including increased plant height, branch length, and biomass (Table 1), leading to a significantly improved Harvest Index (HI). These findings align with previous research [5, 6, 7] suggesting that raised-bed configurations are essential for redgram sustainability. Optimization of Nursery Technique and Seedling Age Seedling quality and age at transplanting were found to be pivotal for field success. Seedlings raised in black polyethylene bags outperformed those in pro-trays, likely due … Read more

Impact of charcoal on fiber crop, Jute (Corchorus capsularis L) as natural polymer with morphological features, biomass production and root development under natural condition at roof top garden

  • Kamrun Nahar

Introduction: Jute (Corchorus capsularis L- white Jute) is a potential cash crop and natural polymer that belongs to the Mavaceae family, known to Bangladesh as “Golden Fiber” because of earning foreign currency by exporting it. This cash crop strengthens the national GDP and holds economic significance in our country [1], [2], [16], [21]. It is cultivated in an area of about 9,93,000 acres and produces 46,19,000 m. tons in 2005- 2006 [12]. Among the growing countries, Bangladesh ranks in second position in terms of fiber production. In recent years, it has been well focused as considered as natural polymer and a vital sector in the context of economic, commercial, agricultural, industrial, and, more importantly, environmental aspects in Bangladesh as well as the global markets [69],[58], [6], [13]. Thus, the rising demand for jute production is increasing day by day in national and international markets as the products from jute are environmentally friendly and biodegradable. Farmers are also now interested in production and marketing of raw jute because of its economic importance as well as for future potential of global jute market [5] [30], [31], [32],[33],[36], [39], [42], [44], [46] and [55].  As an eco-friendly, annual and major fiber crop, grown well in tropical and subtropical climates, which attains a height of approximately 3-6 meters, with a thickness of about 2- 2.5 cm, and completes its life cycle in 3 months or 90 days. Its 2 important parts, leaves and stalk, could be used in our daily life for consumption and as biomass resources. Besides the potential for fiber, it could be used commercially and exported to foreign countries.  As a sustainable and abiotic stress tolerant and integrated plant biomass, the extraction of fiber could be done in a ecofriendly manner [8],[11],[64], and the extracted fiber from the matured plant used in various types of household products like, bag, carpet, mat, crafts, clothing etc [14], [51]. Besides the fiber, jute sticks are largely used for various domestic purposes as fencing, roofing material, and biomass fuel for cooking purposes, particularly in suburban and rural areas of Bangladesh. In addition, the leaves locally called ‘Pat Shak” are consumed as a vegetable by a major part of our population in urban, suburban and rural areas as well as other Asian countries in the world, which contain different types of vitamins, minerals, protein, including antioxidants [30],[56] and [40]. Furthermore, it contains several metabolites that are important to consider for pharmacological research and human health issues, too [3]. Thus, it is not only considered or used as an economic fiber and cash crop, but it has a tremendous demand as a healthy and nutritious vegetable as well as has medicinal values. The plant has immense adaptability, including sustainability, as it is more water-tolerant and can generally be grown in lowlands and also in waterlogging conditions [68].  Besides, it can be grown in different soil types, ranging from clay to sandy loam with medium to lower fertility status. To evaluate the plant production and maintain the adequate growth, adaptability and yield of Jute production in natural conditions, proper application of amendment is essential to get better biomass yield [7].  In this context, different soil amendments could be used. Jute as an important cash crop that prefers a carbon source. Thus, charcoal could be used as a good amendment and carbon-rich soil conditioner for the production of biomass. It is considered a valuable carbon-rich organic matter that serves as a soil conditioner when applied to soil to improve the fertility status of the soil. It has a synergistic effect that promotes plant growth and development. Besides, its application in soil allows better soil management by increasing microbial activities with the release of essential nutrients required by the plant. Thus, charcoal as a good soil amendment, could be added to soil to increase its fertility, water retention capacity, carbon storage[4],[15],[28] and [29], including improvement of the soil health and fertility status of soil. Jute plants need a number of nutrients for their growth and proper development [66],[70],[71] although applying inorganic fertilizers increases crop yield, but deteriorate soil health as well, resulting in a decrease in crop yield. Charcoal is a carbonized material, which is used to improve soil health and creates a scope to release nutrients slowly as slow releasing amendment. In this present study, charcoal was applied at various rates. Carbonized materials such as charcoal are responsible for the stability of soil carbon, and their application have a ameliorating effect on increasing nutrient holding capacity, including supply in addition of reduction of soil acidity. Thus, maintains soil organic matter in the tropical and subtropical climate due to rapid rates of decomposition. Furthermore, charcoal as a carbonized material and is a cheap source of carbon in soil. However, the varying levels of amendment treatment had diverse effects on seedling and plant growth enhancement [60]. Some of the amendments increased plant height significantly at low levels but decreased with increasing levels of application. However, medium levels of fertilizer as soil amendment promote growth and yield of plants [19]. Charcoal as a carbon source as well as organic fertilizer, is important as it promotes the growth and development of the jute plant. Therefore, an experiment was conducted to investigate the influence of different levels of charcoal as carbon rich amendment on the growth and development of Corchorus capsularis. Materials and Methods: A pot experiment was carried out to study the response of jute (Corchorus capsularis) with the variety, BJRI Deshi pat -10, at the rooftop of 3 storied building in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The experiment was conducted to evaluate the impact of various rates of carbon source, such as charcoal, a potential soil amendment, on morphological features, biomass production, and root development of the mentioned Jute plant as a natural polymer or fiber crop. In the experiment, 6 treatments of charcoal were applied at the rate of control, 1g, 2g, 3g, 4g, and 5g as the treatments, T0, T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5, respectively for a period of 5 weeks.  … Read more

Genotypic Variation and Seed Morphological Determinants of Maize (Zea mays L.) Performance and Resistance to Bacterial Streak in a Naturally Infected Field

  • Bukola Ojo Adediran1
  • Oluwafemi Michael Adedire2
  • Olufemi Stephen Olaoye3

Introduction Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the world’s most important cereal crops, serving as a primary source of food, feed, and industrial raw material. Maize (Zea mays) cultivation and exploration have been at their all-time high in Nigeria and indeed, all parts of the globe [2]. In many maize-growing regions, particularly in tropical and subtropical environments, productivity is constrained by a wide range of biotic stresses, among which bacterial diseases have gained increasing importance [19]. One of the emerging bacterial diseases affecting maize is Bacterial Leaf Streak (BLS), caused by Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum (Xvv) [14]. The disease is characterized by elongated, water-soaked lesions on leaves that coalesce to form streaks, leading to reduced photosynthetic area, premature senescence, and ultimately yield losses. In endemic areas, especially where climatic conditions favor disease development, bacterial streak has become a major challenge to sustainable maize production [20]. Chemical and cultural management strategies for bacterial streak are largely ineffective or uneconomical due to the limited availability of effective bactericides and the polycyclic nature of the pathogen [12]. Consequently, host-plant resistance remains the most viable and environmentally friendly approach for disease management [7]. However, the genetic basis of tolerance to bacterial streak in maize is complex, and resistance levels among available germplasm are variable [13]. Identifying and selecting genotypes that combine superior agronomic performance with tolerance to bacterial streak is therefore critical for breeding programs targeting disease-prone environments. Field evaluation of maize genotypes under natural disease pressure provides an opportunity to assess both yield performance and resistance stability under realistic agronomic conditions [9]. Such assessments help distinguish genotypes that can maintain acceptable productivity despite infection pressure, making them valuable candidates for further breeding and deployment in endemic regions [6]. Furthermore, understanding the interaction between the performance of released maize genotypes from research institutes like the Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (IAR&T) and disease intensity contributes to the development of selection indices that integrate yield potential, seed morphology, and disease tolerance [8]. The present study was therefore undertaken to evaluate the agronomic performance of eight (8) maize genotypes released by IAR&T, Ibadan, in a bacterial streak endemic field in order to identify promising genotypes and grain size that combine high yield potential with stable tolerance. Materials and Methods The experiment was conducted at the Teaching and Research Farm of Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN), Ibadan, Oyo State. Seeds of eight genotypes of maize used for the experiment were obtained at the seed store of IAR&T, Ibadan, Oyo State (Table 1). The experiment was carried out during the early cropping season of 2023 (May – August) on a bacterial streak endemic field [3]. Maize seeds (500 g) of each cultivar were sorted into three different sizes (big, medium, and small) [24][17]. One hundred seeds were randomly selected from each category to determine seed morphometrics through the use of a digital variety caliper (Table 2). The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD), replicated three times. The experimental field was laid out in three blocks, and each block comprised three replicates. Inter-block spacing was 2.0 m, inter-row spacing was 0.75 m while intra-row spacing was 0.50 m and seeds were sown at 2 cm depth. Data were collected on five randomly selected plants to study the agronomic traits: Plant height at 95% maturity (cm), leaf area (cm2), stem girth (cm), cob length (cm), cob girth (cm), total grain weight (kg), cob weight/fruit (kg), grain yield per hectare (kg), harvest index (calculated as percentage of grain weight divided by total biomass), shelling percentage was calculated as percentage of grain weight divided by cob weight (%), 1000-seed was the average weight of 1000 seeds obtained from five shelled cobs (kg). The data collected were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using statistical analysis software [22]. Means were separated using Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) at 5% probability. Isolation of Xanthomonas vasicola and characterization of bacterial streak Affected portions (5 mm sections) of infected leaves were inoculated on Nutrient Agar for isolation of the streak pathogen (X. vasicola). Samples were surface-sterilised with 2% sodium hypochlorite, rinsed thrice with sterile water, drained, and inoculated on prepared agar plates [2]. Microbial strains were isolated from infected tissue samples on Nutrient Agar, and bacterial streak disease was eventually characterized in the maize genotypes as reported by Malvick et al., 2024 [15]. A modified disease severity scale (0-5) for maize streak was used Mushayi et al., 2025 [16], while percentage incidence [18] of the disease was determined as described below: Resistance and tolerance to bacterial wilt were determined according to the rating class described by Borisade et al., 2017 [5] as < 1% and ≤ 25% severity measures, respectively. Results and Discussion Performance of maize genotypes The mean performance of growth characters evaluated in the eight varieties of maize is presented in Table 3. There was no significant difference among the varieties in terms of their stem girth and seed sizes, although variety ART-98-SWI (Small) recorded the highest mean of 6.26 cm. There was no significant difference in the plant height of maize; however, plant height for small seed size was lower, considering seed size. This was in concordance with the result observed in a collection of soybean varieties [27]. Mean performance of yield and yield components evaluated in the eight (8) varieties of maize is presented in Table 4. With reference to cob length, there was no significant difference in the varieties and seed sizes. However, variety Suwan-1 (Large) recorded the longest cob length (28.20 cm) while ALT-98-SW6 (Small) recorded the least cob length (23.49 cm). For cob girth, there were significant differences among the varieties; variety ALT-98-SW6 (Large) recorded the widest average cob (17.83 cm), while the shortest cob girth was recorded for variety LNTP (Small). For 1000-seed weight, a significant difference was observed among the varieties and their seed sizes. Variety DMR-LSR-Y (Small) recorded the heaviest weight (0.38 kg). Variety LNTP (Medium) recorded the heaviest/largest total grain yield (0.23 kg). PRO-VIT-A (Medium) recorded … Read more

Climate Change Adaptation through Soil and Nutrient Management for Sustainable Crop Production in Bangladesh: A Review

  • Md. Jahangir Kabir1
  • Khalid Syfullah2

Introduction: Climate change poses a substantial threat to global agricultural systems, with developing countries experiencing disproportionate impacts due to their high dependence on climate-sensitive livelihoods and limited adaptive capacity [1,2]. Bangladesh is recognized as one of the most climate-vulnerable countries in the world, where agriculture plays a central role in food security, employment, and rural livelihoods[1]. Increasing temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, frequent floods, prolonged droughts, and accelerating salinity intrusion are already disrupting crop production systems across the country [2]. These climate-induced stresses are projected to intensify in the coming decades, posing serious challenges to sustaining crop productivity and national food security[1]. Soil health and nutrient availability constitute the foundation of sustainable crop production, yet they are highly sensitive to climate variability and extreme events [3, 4]. Rising temperatures accelerate organic matter decomposition, alter nutrient mineralization rates, and increase nitrogen losses through volatilization and leaching [5, 3]. Changes in precipitation regimes influence soil moisture dynamics, erosion processes, and nutrient transport, while floods and waterlogging modify redox conditions, affecting the availability of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and micronutrients [6]. In coastal regions of Bangladesh, sea-level rise and saline water intrusion further exacerbate soil degradation by increasing salinity and sodicity, leading to nutrient imbalance and reduced crop growth [7,8]. Consequently, climate change is not only a direct stressor on crops but also an indirect driver of declining soil fertility and nutrient use efficiency [9]. Bangladesh agriculture is predominantly characterized by intensive cropping systems, particularly rice-based rotations, which place continuous pressure on soil resources [10]. Decades of high-input fertilizer use, often imbalanced and inefficient, combined with limited organic matter recycling, have resulted in declining soil organic carbon and emerging micronutrient deficiencies in many agroecological zones [11]. Under changing climatic conditions, these existing soil fertility constraints are becoming more pronounced, increasing the vulnerability of cropping systems to yield instability. Therefore, enhancing soil resilience and optimizing nutrient management are increasingly viewed as central pillars of climate change adaptation in agriculture [12,3]. Soil and nutrient management practices offer significant potential to buffer climate risks while supporting sustainable intensification [12,13]. Integrated soil fertility management, balanced and site-specific nutrient application, organic amendments, conservation agriculture, and climate-smart nutrient strategies can improve soil structure, water-holding capacity, nutrient retention, and crop nutrient uptake under variable climate conditions [14,9]. These practices not only enhance crop productivity and yield stability but also generate co-benefits such as soil carbon sequestration, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and improved resource-use efficiency [15]. In the context of Bangladesh, where land availability is limited and production pressure is high, climate-adaptive soil and nutrient management approaches are particularly critical. Despite a growing body of research on climate change impacts and agricultural adaptation in Bangladesh, existing studies are often fragmented, focusing on individual crops, nutrients, or stress factors. A comprehensive synthesis that explicitly links climate change, soil processes, nutrient dynamics, and adaptation strategies for sustainable crop production remains limited [9]. Moreover, the integration of biophysical evidence with socio-economic and institutional considerations relevant to the adoption of improved soil and nutrient management practices has not been adequately addressed in previous reviews [16]. This review aims to critically synthesize existing knowledge on climate change adaptation through soil and nutrient management in Bangladesh agriculture. Specifically, it examines (i) climate-induced changes in soil properties and nutrient dynamics, (ii) soil and nutrient management strategies that enhance crop resilience and sustainability under climate stress, and (iii) key research gaps, policy implications, and future directions for strengthening climate-resilient crop production systems [1]. By consolidating current evidence, this review seeks to inform researchers, policymakers, and practitioners on pathways to sustainable agricultural adaptation in Bangladesh under a changing climate. 2. Climate Change Trends and Impacts on Bangladesh Agriculture 2.1 Observed and Projected Climate Trends in Bangladesh Bangladesh has experienced clear and consistent signals of climate change over recent decades, characterized by rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and an increased frequency of extreme weather events [1,2]. Observational records indicate a gradual increase in both mean annual and seasonal temperatures, with more pronounced warming during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon periods [17]. This warming trend has important implications for crop phenology, evapotranspiration demand, and soil biological activity [3]. Concurrently, rainfall patterns have become increasingly erratic, marked by intense short-duration rainfall events interspersed with prolonged dry spells, rather than uniform seasonal distribution [17,1]. Climate projections suggest that these trends will intensify in the future. Model-based scenarios indicate further increases in temperature, heightened rainfall variability, and greater incidence of extreme events such as floods, droughts, and heatwaves [1,2]. Sea-level rise is projected to exacerbate saline water intrusion in coastal and deltaic regions, while upstream hydrological changes are likely to influence river flooding dynamics in floodplain areas [8]. Together, these changes are expected to increase climate uncertainty for agricultural systems, placing additional stress on soils and nutrient cycling processes that underpin crop production [9]. 2.2 Impacts of Climate Variability on Soil Properties and Nutrient Dynamics Climate variability directly influences soil physical, chemical, and biological properties, thereby altering nutrient availability and use efficiency in agricultural systems [3,4]. Rising temperatures accelerate soil organic matter decomposition, leading to declines in soil organic carbon stocks, which are critical for nutrient retention, aggregation, and moisture regulation [5]. Enhanced decomposition rates can initially increase nutrient mineralization but often result in long-term nutrient depletion and reduced soil resilience under intensive cropping systems [9]. Altered rainfall regimes further affect nutrient dynamics by influencing soil moisture status, erosion, and leaching losses [18]. Intense rainfall events increase surface runoff and soil erosion, leading to the loss of nutrient-rich topsoil and associated macro- and micronutrients [19,20]. Conversely, prolonged dry periods restrict nutrient diffusion and microbial activity, limiting nutrient uptake by crops [21]. Flooding and waterlogging, common in low-lying areas of Bangladesh, create anaerobic soil conditions that modify redox-sensitive nutrient transformations, particularly nitrogen and sulfur, resulting in gaseous losses and reduced fertilizer efficiency [6]. In coastal regions, salinity intrusion driven by sea-level rise and storm surges disrupts soil nutrient balance by increasing sodium concentrations, reducing calcium and potassium availability, and impairing root nutrient uptake [7,8]. Climate-induced changes in soil … Read more