Original Research Article

Effect of GA₃ and NAA on Growth and Yield of Cabbage

  • S. M. Abdul Gani1
  • Md. Moinul Haque1
  • Ronzon Chandra Das2
  • Rafio Rahmatullah 3
  • Md. Kayes Mahmud4
  • Md. Khayrul Islam Bashar4
  • Mirza Golam Morshed5
  • Md Toufiqul Islam5
  • khalid syfullah6

Introduction Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.), commonly referred to as “Badhacopy” in Bangladesh, belongs to the Brassicaceae family and is an important winter vegetable extensively grown across the country .It provides a wealth of essential nutrients like vitamins A, B, and C, along with minerals and beneficial bioactive compounds such as sinigrin glucoside, which enhance both its unique flavor and health-promoting properties. Additionally, cabbage is utilized in various culinary forms, including curries, salads, and pickles. The edible portion consists of tightly packed leaves forming the head, which is a vital economic trait. From a nutritional standpoint, every 100 grams of the edible green part of cabbage comprises about 92% water and supplies 24 kilocalories of energy, along with 1.5 grams of protein, 4.8 grams of carbohydrates, 40 milligrams of calcium, 0.6 milligrams of iron, 600 IU of carotene, 0.05 milligrams of riboflavin, 0.3 milligrams of niacin, and 60 milligrams of vitamin C. [1]. Cabbage also contains sulforaphane, a potent anti-carcinogenic compound, and increased consumption of plant-based foods such as cabbage has been linked to reduced risks of diabetes, obesity, heart disease, and overall mortality. Although cabbage is an important crop in Bangladesh, its average yield is relatively low at 16.06 tons per hectare, falling well behind countries like Japan (40.03 t/ha), South Korea (59.07 t/ha), and even neighboring India (17.88 t/ha). [2]. This yield gap can be attributed primarily to suboptimal management practices and limited adoption of yield-enhancing technologies. Utilizing plant growth regulators (PGRs) is one promising approach to boosting cabbage production, as they significantly influence plant growth, development, and yield improvement. Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are organic substances that can alter various physiological functions in plants, even when applied in minimal amounts. Auxins like naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) mainly promote cell elongation, whereas gibberellins (GA₃) encourage both cell division and elongation. [3]. External application of these growth regulators has been extensively researched across different crops, showing notable enhancements in plant growth and yield. [4]. Research indicates that GA₃ boosts plant height, leaf expansion, and head development, whereas NAA supports root growth and increases head weight. [5,6]. Research indicates that cabbage shows a positive response to foliar applications of GA₃ and NAA, resulting in increased leaf count and enhanced marketable yield. [7,8]. Drobek M. [9] discovered that applying GA₃ at 60 ppm and NAA at 80 ppm produced the highest yield of cabbage heads.. Similarly, PAINKRA, B. [8] reported the highest yield when GA₃ was applied at 50 ppm, with NAA at 50 ppm closely following. Other studies suggest that GA₃ at 100 ppm yields the best results for cabbage production [10,11], while maximum head yield was also reported with NAA at 50 ppm. Although promising results have been observed in other regions, there is a lack of research on the effectiveness of these growth regulators in Bangladesh, emphasizing the need for further studies. This study assessed the effects of GA₃ and NAA on cabbage and identified their optimal concentrations for maximizing growth and yield. Materials and Methods Location and Study Period The study was conducted at the Horticulture Farm of Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) in Joydebpur, Gazipur, from October 2016 to March 2017. It aimed to evaluate the effects of gibberellic acid (GA₃) and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) on the growth and yield of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata). Soil and Climatic Conditions The experimental field had sandy clay loam soil with a pH of approximately 6.0, belonging to the Chita soil series (AEZ-28). The climate was subtropical, with heavy rainfall between May and September, followed by a dry period for the rest of the year. Planting Material and Treatments The test variety used was ‘Atlas-70’ cabbage, sourced from Siddik Bazaar, Gulistan, Dhaka. The experiment included eight treatments: Study Design and Field Layout The experiment used a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. It involved 24 plots (1.8 m × 2 m) with 50 cm × 60 cm plant spacing. Blocks were separated by 0.75 m, and plots within blocks had 0.5 m spacing. Land Preparation and Fertilizer Application The field was plowed, exposed to sunlight for a week, and leveled. Cinocarb 3G insecticide (4 kg/ha) was applied to control soil-borne pests. Fertilizers were applied following Islam et al. (2004) recommendations: Growth Regulator Preparation and Treatment Application A 1000 ppm GA₃ stock solution was prepared, diluted to obtain 50 ppm, 75 ppm, and 100 ppm solutions, and applied using a mini hand sprayer at 30 and 45 days after transplanting. A similar method was followed for NAA solutions. Seedling Raising and Transplanting Cabbage seedlings were raised at Olericulture Division, HRC, BARI, Gazipur, on 3 m × 1 m seedbeds. Decomposed cow dung (5 t/ha), 200 g TSP, and 150 g MoP were applied. Seeds were sown on November 26, 2016, and transplanted at 27 days old (December 22, 2017). Intercultural Operations Harvesting and Data Collection Cabbage was harvested between February 28 and March 8, 2017, based on head compactness. Data were collected from five randomly selected plants per plot, while total yield was measured on a per-plot basis. Recorded Parameters Data Processing and Analysis Data were analyzed using ANOVA in Statistics 10.0, and mean comparisons were conducted using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at a 5% significance level. Result and Discussion Plant height The application of GA₃ and NAA has been shown ( Fig 1) to significantly influence plant height in cabbage cultivation. In a study evaluating various concentrations of these plant growth regulators, the tallest plants were observed by applying of 75 ppm GA₃, reaching a height of 23.00 cm. This was statistically comparable to treatments with 50 ppm GA₃, 100 ppm GA₃, and 60 ppm NAA. In contrast, the shortest plants, measuring 17.25 cm, were recorded in the control group, which did not receive any growth regulator. The increase in plant height resulting from GA₃ and NAA treatments can be attributed to their roles in modulating physiological processes such as cell elongation and division, thereby promoting enhanced vegetative growth. GA₃, in particular, … Read more

Phytochemical and Proximate Studies on Justicia secunda vahl (Blood root)

  • Ogbuozobe, G. O.
  • Obidiegwu, A. J.
  • Anukwuorji, C. A.
  • Ikegbunam, N. C.
  • Egboka, T. P.

Introduction Justicia secunda is a flowering plants belonging to the family Acanthaceae. It has over 700 species. They are commonly found most parts of Africa and America. It hosts many insects such as butterfly. Available data confirmed that J. secunda currently domesticated in the sub-saharan Africa originated from a part of America. The name “Justicia”   is in honour of the Scottish horticulturist James Justice (1698–1763) [1]. It is commonly known as St.john’s bush but “blood leaf” or “blood root” in Barbados [2]. In Nigeria, the igbos call it “Obara Yom Yom” or” ogwu obara ” meaning ” blood multiplier” or ” blood tonic”. Ethnobotanical Significance and Distribution of Justicia secunda Justicia secunda, commonly known as “blood root” or “blood leaf,” holds various local names reflecting its cultural and medicinal importance across Nigeria. Among the Yorùbá people, it is referred to as “Èwẹ Èjẹ” (blood leaf) or “Èwẹ Ajẹ́rì” (Jehovah Witness leaf), the latter name highlighting its traditional use as a natural alternative to blood transfusion—particularly valued by members of the Jehovah’s Witness faith who may decline conventional transfusion procedures for religious reasons. In South-Eastern Nigeria, particularly among the Igbo-speaking communities, the plant is locally called “Obara Bundu,” emphasizing its association with blood restoration. The Ogbia people of Otuoke-Otuaba in Bayelsa State, located in the Niger-Delta region, refer to it as “Asindiri” or “Ohowaazara.” Justicia secunda thrives in humid environments, often found growing in moist soils near rivers, streams, and creeks. Its distribution spans tropical and pantropical regions of the world, where it is valued not only for its medicinal uses but also for its ecological adaptability. Medicinal plants according to World Health Organization [3] is defined as herbal preparations made by introducing plants materials to extract, fractionation, purification, concentration or other biological or physical processes which maybe produced for herbal products or for immediate consumption4. Most drug are produced both in orthodox and traditional medicine using medicinal plants. The importance of medicinal plants in health care delivery system cannot be over-emphasized because over 50% of the world population use it for treatment and prevention of various diseases that affaect both children and adults. It is a known fact that orthodox drugs are expensive, not readily available and most have side effects in some remote places, hence the recent increase in the usage of medicinal plants in these areas. Socio-ethnic preference and indigence may likely be part of the reason for the recent shift. Justicia secunda leaf is used in the treatment of anemia in some parts of Africa especially Jehovah’s Witness believers. The plant is referred to as blood booster. This is also confirms the scientific basis of the doctrine of signature;  decoction from the leaf produce red colour. [5,6]. Ethno-medicinal studies on the plant proved that every part of the plant is useful especially in folk medicine. Athough the leaf and the roots are mostly used. The effectiveness of the extract in the treatment of ilments especially diabetes has been confirmed by various researchers. This was done by the leaf extract [7]. Its microbial activity on some bacteria has also been proven [8]. The plant has low glucose deficiency and anti-biabetic effects9. This proved by an empirical study conducted with model organisms, while the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities have also been reported [10]. The reactive substances in this plant are responsible for most of these activities. Phytochemicals also referred to as phytoconstituents are bioactive compounds that play significant role in disease prevention and control. This is an essential feature of the plant-derived chemicals. Primarily, these chemicals are produced for the protection of plants but findings from researchers proved that they also protect man against diseases. Over one thousand phytochemicals in plants have been studied and documented. Common examples of phytochemicals are alkaloids, terpeniods, steroids, flavonoids, tannins and phenolic compounds [11], phytochemicals, also called secondary metabolites are usually abundant in various parts of therapeutic plants including J. secunda, they have protective mechanism and defend plants from various stress12. In Nigeria, Justicia secunda Vahl is commonly cultivated around homesteads, where it often serves dual purposes as both a living fence and a medicinal herb. The plant is valued for its ease of propagation; it can be readily grown from stem cuttings by simply inserting the stem 1–2 inches into moist soil. One of its most notable features is the purplish-reddish sap, often referred to as “blood juice,” which is extracted from the leaves either by soaking in water or by boiling. This extract is typically consumed as a herbal tea believed to have blood-enhancing properties. In various regions of the country, the fresh leaves of J. secunda are also consumed raw or used in combination with other medicinal plants such as “nchuanwu” (scent leaf, Ocimum gratissimum) and Moringa oleifera as culinary ingredients to enhance the nutritional and medicinal value of local dishes like yam porridge and stews. Despite its widespread application in Nigerian folkloric medicine, scientific validation remains limited, with relatively few pharmacological studies conducted to date on this potentially valuable species [13]. This study is aimed at identifying the phytochemicals and Proximate components of Justicia secunda vahl which will be useful in providing information that could lead to further utilization of the plant either for medicinal purposes or other uses in the future and to establish the importance of Justicia secunda vahl plant. Materials and methods Collection and Identification of Plant Sample Fresh leaves of Justicia secunda were collected on November 8th, 2022, from Obeagu Village, Agulu, located in Anaocha Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria. The plant specimen was subsequently identified and authenticated by a taxonomist in the Department of Botany, Faculty of Biosciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. A voucher specimen was deposited in the department’s herbarium with the reference number NAUH-203B. Preparation of plant sample for phytochemical extraction.  Each leaf was spread on the laboratory bench and carefully inspected for the presence of variegated or extraneous materials such as dirt and insect larvae. Healthy leaves were sorted and washed under running water without squeezing to … Read more

Comparative analysis of Azadirachta indica and Trichoderma viride in the management of fungal-induced rot in Ipomoea batatas

  • Achugbu, A.N
  • Akubuko, M.J.
  • Omaka, O
  • Ilodibia, C.V.

INTRODUCTION Cultivated in many countries, including sub-Saharan Africa, sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas, L.), a root crop of the Convolvulaceae family, are an important secondary crop that contributes to household food security in many countries (15, 19, 21). The yellow-orange cultivars contain variable, but occasionally large, quantities of carotenoids, which act as precursors of vitamin A (20). Microorganisms, primarily fungi, can infect sweet potato roots at various stages, including field, harvest, and storage stages. Infection is primarily facilitated by mechanical injuries of the roots and environmental conditions (25). These cultivars combine a number of advantageous characteristics that give them great potential as food (26). Azadirachtin is the primary constituent of seeds that has both antifeedant and poisonous effects on insects. It is a complex tetranortriterpenoid limonoid. (14). Both Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA were susceptible to the in vitro antibacterial activity of the neem leaf ethanol extract, with the largest zones of inhibition seen at 100% concentration (21). According to Nawrocka et al. (16), secondary metabolites have the ability to stimulate plant growth, function as antibacterial agents, and supply abundant resources for the production of agricultural antibiotics. Neem has the ability to scavenge free radicals because of its abundance of antioxidants (7). One of the most prevalent culturable fungi, Trichoderma is found in a wide range of ecological diversity. The genus is widely distributed in root and soil ecosystems as well as plant waste, and it is free-living, cosmopolitan, facultatively anaerobic, filamentous, and asexually reproducing. Trichoderma has long been recognized as a microbial biocontrol agent that can replace chemical fungicides in the fight against the diverse range of fungus responsible for root rot, soilborne, and foliar infections (6). The term “antibiosis” primarily describes Trichoderma’s capacity to produce antagonistic compounds that prevent the growth of plant pathogenic fungi (10, 9, 13, 23, 3). Trichoderma employs this phenomenon of antibiosis to manufacture low-molecular-weight, diffusible, specialized chemicals or an antibiotic with antifungal and antibacterial effects.  Antibiotics can enter host cells, function as metabolic inhibitors, or hinder protein synthesis (translational routes), and prevent the target pathogen from producing metabolites, growing, sporulating, absorbing nutrients, or forming cell walls, depending on their biochemical makeup.  Trichoderma can create hundreds of antimicrobial secondary metabolites, including as trichomycin, gelatinomycin, chlorotrichomycin, and antibacterial peptides.  (12). The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of Azadirachta indica leaf extracts and Trichoderma viride in the control of fungi causing rot in Ipomoea batatas. MATERIALS AND METHODS AREA OF STUDY The Maeve Academic Research Laboratory in Awka served as the study’s location. COLLECTION OF MATERIALS Samples of Ipomoea batatas were procured from the Eke Nibo market and kept in sterile paper bags. The Azadirachta indica leaves were collected from a farmland in Okpuno Awka while Trichoderma viride was collected from Maeve Academic research laboratory Awka PREPARATION OF PLANT SAMPLE FOR PHYTOCHEMICAL EXTRACTION After being left to dry at room temperature for five days, the plant samples were blended into a powder using an electric blender. One hundred milliliters of ethanol were used to extract fifteen grams (15g) of the sample for thirty minutes after it had been weighed using a Soxhlet extractor.  The extract was stored for phytochemical and antibacterial testing after being moved into a 250 ml conical flask. PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS Qualitative Analysis (5) Phenol Test: Add a few drops of a diluted ferric chloride solution to test for phenol to a test tube containing five milliliters (5ml) of the extract. The presence of phenols is indicated by the production of a red, blue, green, or purple colouring. Alkaloids Test:  The extract was pipetted into a test tube to check for alkaloids in five milliliters (5ml).  Using Mayer’s reagent (potassium mercuric iodide), the filtrate was thoroughly examined.  Alkaloids are present when the precipitate is yellow in color. Keller-Killani Test for Cardiac Glycoside: Five milliliters (5 ml) of extract were mixed with a few drops of glacial acetic acid, 10% ferric chloride, and concentrated sulfuric acid.  The presence of cardiac glycosides is indicated by the reddish-brown appearance at the intersection of the two liquid layers. Anthraquinone glycosides: Bontrager’s test for anthraquinone glycosides involved adding diluted sulfuric acid to five milliliters (5 ml) of extract, boiling it, and filtering it. Then, adding an equivalent volume of benzene or chloroform to the cold filtrate, the organic layer was separated, and ammonia was added, causing the ammonia layer to turn pink or red. Test for Flavonoids: A few drops of ammonia solution were combined with five milliliters of extract. Flavonoids are indicated by their yellow or orange appearance. Test for Tannins: In a test tube, two milliliters (5 ml) of a 10% ferric chloride solution were added to five milliliters (5 ml) of water extract of every plant part. The presence of tannins is indicated by a blue-black precipitate. Test for Saponin:  To a test tube containing five milliliters (5 ml) of the plant sample two milliliters of distilled water were added to the plant sample, and it was vigorously shaken. The presence of saponin is indicated by the volume of persistent froth or bubbles that form. Test for Steroids and Terpenes: A test tube containing five milliliters (5 ml) of sample extract was mixed with two milliliters of acetic anhydride and a few drops of strong sulfuric acid. Steroids are indicated by blue-green rings between layers, while terpenes are indicated by pink-purple rings. Quantitative Analysis Tannin: As stated by Ejikeme et al. (2) and Amadi et al. (1).  The tannin content was quantitatively ascertained using an analytical method. The Folin-Denis reagent was made by dissolving 50 g of sodium tungstate (Na2WO4) in 37 cm3 of distilled water.  After adding 25 cm3 of orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4) and 10 g of phosphomolybdic acid, the reagent was refluxed for two hours, cooled, and diluted with 500 cm3 of distilled water.  In a conical flask, 2g of the material was mixed with 50ml of distilled water.  This was cooked gradually on an electric hot plate for an hour before being filtered using number 42 (125 mm) Whatman filter … Read more

Characterization of Juvenile Kola (Cola spp.) in Nigeria Using Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) Markers

  • Sobowale Ibrahim Olalekan 1
  • Adenuga Omotayo Olalekan1
  • Adebiyi Solomon3
  • Orisajo Samuel Bukola2
  • Areola Oluwatobi James1

1. Introduction Economically,Kola is a significant commodity crop that contributes to local livelihoods and agricultural diversification. The cultivation and trade of Kola products create employment opportunities and encourage smallholder farming, thus enhancing food security and community resilience. Furthermore, as the global demand for caffeine and specialty beverages continues to rise, Kola holds promise for expanding markets and fostering economic growth within the region [1] [2]. The kola nut, derived from the fruit of the Kola tree, holds a significant place in both cultural traditions and nutritional value. Morphologically, these seeds exhibit three distinct colors: white, red, and pink. Each hue not only contributes to its visual appeal but also signifies varying levels of caffeine and theobromine, compounds that are essential for its stimulating properties. In terms of nutritional composition, the kola nut is rich in key chemical elements, including water, fat, ash, fiber, carbohydrates, and proteins. Kola nuts help to reduce the sensations of hunger and tiredness [3]. Kola nuts are characterized by a significant caffeine concentration, typically ranging from 1.84 to 2.56%. This inherent stimulant property has historically contributed to their utilization in various cultural and commercial contexts. The presence of this substantial caffeine level distinguishes kola nuts from other botanical products [4]. The burgeoning interest in natural remedies has propelled nuts and their extracts into prominence across Europe and North America. Beyond their traditional culinary applications, these resources are increasingly utilized in alternative medicinal practices and as components in diverse industrial products, including soft drinks, confectionery, animal feed, liquid soaps, and dyes [1] [2] [5]. Numerous medicinal properties have been ascribed to the kola nut, including its purported efficacy in treating infections, dermatological conditions, ulcers, and oral discomfort. Furthermore, anecdotal evidence suggests its use in alleviating morning sickness, intestinal ailments, headaches, depression, and diminished libido, as well as respiratory and gastrointestinal disorders [6] [7].  kola nuts are traditionally purported to provide diverse health benefits, such as digestive aid, hangover relief, support for menstrual regulation and labor complications [8] [7]. Kola nut trees, indigenous to the tropical forests of West Africa, hold considerable cultural importance. Beyond their botanical characteristics, these trees are integral to the social, religious, and ceremonial practices of numerous indigenous communities within the region. The kola nut itself thus serves as more than just a product of the forest, functioning as a symbolic element deeply embedded in local traditions [7] [9]. It is utilized at weddings, child naming ceremonies, chief installation ceremonies, funerals, and sacrifices offered to many African mythological gods [7] [9]. Kola cultivation, while vital for both health and economic stability, presents significant challenges to producers. These challenges include reproductive barriers such as sterility and incompatibilities in pollination, exacerbated by undesirable agronomic traits such as excessive tree height, diminished nut production, and extended maturation timelines. These factors collectively hinder kola production efficiency and profitability. To improve and advance its research attention, accurate genetic diversity studies of the existing Kola germplasm in Nigeria are needed to assist in selecting suitable parents for subsequent breeding programs. Several projects, including the collection of Kolaaccessions from different farmer fields in different locations in Nigeria, have been conducted, although with no distinguishing features. These are maintained as field gene banks with the aim of effectively incorporating them in breeding programs. Molecular characterization, which highlights the genetic diversity and relationships among various groups of different accessions, is required for direct and more reliable selection of Kola accessions. Intersimple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers represent a valuable tool for discerning genetic variation within crops and tree species. Recent application of this technology to Kola accessions within the Institute’s germplasm collection has facilitated the assessment of existing genetic diversity. Such characterization is crucial for comprehending the patterns of diversity and, ultimately, enhancing desirable traits through targeted breeding strategies. 2. Materials and methods 2.1 Plant Materials and Sample Collection This study utilized forty Kola accessions maintained in a newly established germplasm collection at the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria Headquarters in Ibadan (Table 1). Fresh, young leaf samples were collected from each of the selected accessions and carefully preserved in appropriately labeled and sealed bags for subsequent analysis. Following collection, samples were immediately transferred on ice to the bioscience laboratory at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan. Upon arrival, DNA extraction and subsequent genetic profiling were conducted utilizing the Intersimple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) marker procedure. 2.2 DNA Extraction Leaf samples underwent a DNA extraction protocol commencing with mechanical disruption via vortexing in the presence of steel balls and silica gel. Subsequently, a preheated extraction buffer was applied, followed by incubation and homogenization. Protein precipitation was achieved through the addition of potassium acetate and chloroform isoamyl alcohol, with centrifugation separating the supernatant. DNA precipitation was then induced using isopropanol and a subsequent cold incubation, followed by ethanol washes and pellet air-drying. Finally, the DNA pellet was resuspended in ultrapure water, treated with RNase to remove RNA, and incubated. 2.3 Electrophoresis of DNA DNA extraction from leaf tissue was successfully confirmed via agarose gel electrophoresis. A 1% agarose gel was prepared by dissolving agarose powder in 1x TAE buffer, followed by the addition of EZVision DNA stain after cooling. DNA samples, combined with loading buffer, were then electrophoresed alongside a molecular weight ladder. Post-electrophoresis, the gel was visualized under UV transillumination, with the presence of distinct DNA bands indicating successful DNA extraction. 2.4 Polymerase chain reaction The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed utilizing a mixture of Taq 2X Master Mix, forward and reverse primers, DNA template, and nuclease-free water, combined in specified volumes. The thermocycler program commenced with an initial denaturation, followed by 36 cycles of denaturation, annealing, and elongation, each with designated temperatures and durations. A final elongation step was implemented, succeeded by a holding temperature of 10°C. 2.5 DNA scoring and analysis Following PCR amplification, amplified fragments were separated via agarose gel electrophoresis and visualized with UV illumination. Alleles were scored binarily based on band presence (1), absence (0), or missing data (m). Polymorphism percentage was determined by dividing the number of … Read more

Efficacy of Insecticides in Managing Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith)  on Maize Crop Under Natural Field Condition

  • Ghana Shyam Bhandari1
  • Priyanka Bhandari2
  • Lalit Sah 3

INTRODUCTION Maize (Zea mays L.) is a major cereal crop in Nepal, widely cultivated in the hills, mountains, and Terai regions. It serves as both a staple food and an important feed for livestock, playing a vital role in the country’s food security and agricultural economy. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development [18], maize is grown on a total area of 940,256 hectares, with an annual production of 2,976,490 metric tons and an average yield of 3.16 metric tons per hectare. Various factors affect maize yield, with insect pests emerging as a significant challenge in recent years. Among these, the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) has become a major invasive pest of economic importance, primarily infesting maize. Its invasion in Nepal was first reported in the Nawalpur district [4], and it has since spread to other parts of the country. The pest attacks maize throughout the year under favorable environmental conditions, targeting the crop at all stages of growth seedling to harvest and feeding on all parts of the plant except the roots. [10] estimated maize production losses due to fall armyworm at USD 2.481 to 6.187 million per annum. This polyphagous pest feeds on more than 350 plant species [19] and causes significant yield losses in economically important crops such as maize, cotton, soybean, and beans [21], [7]. Yield losses in maize due to fall armyworm infestation can reach as high as  30% reported by [2], 32% by [16] and 33% by [3]. There is a difficulty in the management of Spodoptera frugiperda because it has a wide host range and, high fecundity rate, with multiple generations within a year [8]. In Nepal, chemical control measures are predominantly used to manage fall armyworm infestations. Effective insecticides for its control include chlorantraniliprole, spinosad, spinetoram, and novaluron. However, these products are often expensive and unaffordable for many farmers. Frequent application of insecticides can also lead to the rapid development of resistance, as observed in other regions [13]. These insecticides are not immune to resistance development. [20] reported resistance in fall armyworms to chlorantraniliprole (160-fold), spinetoram (14-fold), and spinosad (8-fold). Consequently, the continuous exploration of new insecticides is essential for the effective management of fall armyworms. This study aims to evaluate selected cost-effective and economically viable synthetic insecticides currently available in the market to support Nepalese farmers in combating fall armyworm infestations. MATERIALS AND METHODS Experimental site and Design This experiment was conducted in the research field of the National Maize Research Program (NMRP), Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal during winter seasons of 2022 and 2023. The research location has latitude 27º 40’ N, longitude 84º 19’ E, and 228 meter above sea level. Six insecticides including untreated control were studied in RCB design with 4 times replication. The maize variety (Rampur hybrid-10) was sown at row to row and plant to plant with a spacing of 60×25 cm in a plot size of 8 rows of five-meter length. All the crop-raising practices including cultural practices, fertilizer application and weed management were followed as per recommendation of NMRP, Rampur, Chitwan. The first spray was given at 15 days after seed sowing as foliar application except for the control, whereas the second and third application was done at 15 days intervals after the first spray. Data to be taken In each treatment, the middle four rows were sampled for leaf and ear injury measurements. Leaf and ear damage were scored through visual observation using the scoring scale of 1–9 reported by [9] (Table 2). Field data were collected three days after each treatment application. The same sample plants were examined in each plot at harvest, and ear damage was measured using the rating scale developed by [9]. Yield-attributing traits, namely cob length and cob diameter, were measured using a Vernier caliper. Grain yield was calculated at 15% moisture using the formula provided below [24]. The data were entered into Microsoft Excel 2016, and GENSTAT (18th edition) was used for data analysis. The comparison of treatment means for significant differences was conducted at a 0.05 probability level [12]. Correlation analysis with weather parameters was also performed. Climate and weather can significantly influence the growth, development, and distribution of insects. Weather data for the experimental period were recorded from the weather station at the National Maize Research Program, Rampur, and are presented in Figure 1. Weather parameters Climate and weather can significantly influence the growth, development, and distribution of insects. Weather parameters were recorded during the experimental period from the weather station established at the National Maize Research Program, as presented below in Figure 1. RESULT Statistical analysis revealed that all treatments were significantly different from the untreated control (p < 0.05) in terms of plant damage and grain yield. However, no significant differences were observed in cob length, cob diameter, and thousand-grain weight (Tables 3 and 4). Among the treatments, Spinosad 45% SC was the most effective, achieving the lowest damage score (1.1) and plant damage percentage (5.2%) due to fall armyworm, followed by Flubendiamide 480 SC (19.7%) and Thiamethoxam 12.6% + Lambda-cyhalothrin 9.5% ZC (31.7%), based on visual observations, compared to the untreated control (84.0%). Similarly, the highest grain yield (9.36 mt/ha) was recorded in the Spinosad 45% SC-treated plot, followed by plots treated with Flubendiamide 480 SC (8.49 mt/ha) and Thiamethoxam 12.6% + Lambda-cyhalothrin 9.5% ZC(8.07 mt/ha), as compared to the untreated control (6.54 mt/ha). While MP AP3Grease and Thiamethoxam 25% WG were the least effective among the treatments, they were still significantly superior to the untreated control. In second year experiment,statistical analysis showed that all treatments were significantly different as compared to untreated control (p<0.05) in the case of plant damage and grain yield measurement but non-significant results were found in cob length, cob diameter, and thousand-grain weight (Table 5 and 6). The lower plant infestation (3.8%) due to fall armyworm was found in spinosad 45% SC treated plot followed by flubendiamide 480 SC (22.1%) and thiamethoxam 12.6%+ lambda-cyhalothrin 9.5%ZC (24.7%) in visual observation as compared … Read more

Molecular Marker Research for Conservation Genomics: Assessing the Genetic Diversity of Acacia Tree Species in Kenya

  • Mwangi Denis Muiruri
  • Martin Ngunjiri Kanyeki
  • Chepngetich Mercy

1.     INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Information Acacia trees are prominent components of ecosystems in Kenya, playing crucial roles in soil enrichment, biodiversity maintenance, and supporting numerous wildlife species. The acacia classification is of the kingdom: Plantae, order: Fabales, family: Fabaceae, genus: Vachellia, and species: V. nilotica. The Fabaceae or Leguminosae family includes plants like Peas, beans, or legumes family, is the third largest Angiosperm (flowering plants) family with over 700 genera and about 20,000 species. This tall tree reaches a height of up to 30 meters and is characterized by its smooth, yellow/green photosynthetic bark. The small bipinnate leaves feature paired straight stipules that are white and spinescent. The numerous bisexual flowers form round yellow spikes, each exhibiting regularity. The flowers contain exserted stamens and pistils with a superior ovary and extending style. The fruit is a non-sickle-shaped, flattish pod, tardily dehiscent, measuring up to 13cm in length. The tree has a dense spherical crown, with stems and branchlets often dark to black in color, fissured bark, and a greyish-pinkish slash that releases reddish low-quality gum. Young trees display thin, straight, light-gray spines in axillary pairs, typically ranging from 3 to 12 pairs long and 5 to 7.5 cm in length. Mature trees, on the other hand, usually lack thorns. The bipinnate leaves have 3-6 pairs of pinnulae and 10-30 pairs of leaflets, each leaflet measuring 4-5 mm long and exhibiting +/- tomentose characteristics. The rachis bears a gland at the bottom of the last pair of pinnulae. The flowers are arranged in globulous heads, 1.2-1.5 cm in diameter, of a bright golden-yellow color, either axillary or whorly on peduncles 2-3 cm long located at the end of the branches. The pods are grey, thick, softly tomentose, straight or slightly curved, measuring 5 to 15 cm long on a pedicel, and 0.5 to 1.2 cm wide [1]. In Kenya, the most dominant species are the Acacia Senegal, Acacia xanthophloea, Acacia nilotica, and the Acacia brevispica. The arid and semi-arid land (ASALs) of Africa is mostly degraded due to human interference, and climate change. They barely receive adequate rainfall annually (less than 400mm). Hence the Acacia tree species has been detrimental in ensuring both agroecosystem restoration, land reclamation through nitrogen fixation, and providing local communities with survival income [2]. Acacia trees play a vital role as a valuable natural resource for rural communities inhabiting arid regions worldwide. These trees serve multiple purposes, including providing livestock fodder, medicinal resources, timber, poles, charcoal, and fuel wood. Acacia pollination is by insects, and they later develop fruits after 4 to 6 months. Additionally, Acacia plants contribute to sustaining various life forms while offering pollen and nectar for honey production. In the Arid and Semi-arid Lands of Kenya, specific Acacia species serve as crucial livelihood sources. In Kitui County, Kenya, efforts have been made to explore wild silk production, but the primary significance of Acacia woodlands lies in the generation of high-quality honey. The honey, renowned for its exceptional quality, experiences strong demand both locally and nationally, making honey production a significant source of livelihood for the communities in the area [3]. Acacia xanthophloea bark tannin could be a potential new source of vegetable tannin agents [4]. In India, there are more than 1500 medicinal plants and half of these are being effectively used in curing different diseases. And the leaves of the Acacia nilotica have been tested to have high levels of total phenolic content, higher antioxidant activity, and higher protein content, compared to the pods and bark. Hence A. nilotica is being used in the control and cure of diabetismelitus as it contains anti-diabetic properties [5]. Understanding the genetic diversity and population structure of Acacia trees is essential for effective conservation and sustainable management. According to [2], few studies have been done on the genetic diversity of the acacia trees of Kenya. One study of A. Senegal using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and inter-specific simple sequence repeat (ISSR), resulted in a moderate level of diversity (H = 0.283) of the tree species. 1.2 Justification of the study Understanding the genetic diversity within A. xanthophloea populations are crucial for conservation efforts, particularly in the face of habitat loss and fragmentation. The use of new genetic technologies has still been rarely used for conservation efforts[6] Investigating the potential impacts of climate change on A. xanthophloea populations is essential for developing effective conservation and management strategies. DArTseq uses genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) technology to sequence and generate data from novel non-referenced genomes. This then generates single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) and DArTseq markers called silico DArTs. This technology has proved to be robust, and of high quality in genomics studies across various species and applications [7]. 1.3 Research Objectives The objective of this research is to; (1) assess the genetic diversity of Acacia trees in Kenya using DArTseq technology; (2) identify the population structure and relatedness of Acacia tree species across different regions in Kenya, and (3) provide valuable data for the formulation of effective conservation strategies and further research for Acacia trees in the region. And lastly, (4) generating the first Acacia genome assembly using open-source tools. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Historically placed within the large and diverse genus Acacia, A. xanthophloea has been subject to taxonomic revisions.  Recent phylogenetic studies, based on both morphological and molecular data, have led to the reclassification of many Acacia species, including A.xanthophloea, into the genus Vachellia [8]. This reclassification reflects a more accurate understanding of evolutionary relationships within the family Mimosaceae (now Fabaceae, subfamily Mimosoideae).  While the name Vachellia xanthophloea is now accepted scientifically, the older name Acacia xanthophloea is still frequently encountered in older literature and some local contexts. Acacia xanthophloea’s most striking feature is the smooth, yellowish-green to greenish-white bark, which peels in papery flakes, giving the tree a distinctive mottled appearance. This bark coloration is due to the presence of chlorophyll in the outer layers, enabling some degree of photosynthesis.  Its smooth texture and tendency to peel are adaptations to the hot, dry environments it inhabits[1]. The leaves are … Read more

Allelopathic Effects of Lepidium sativum Aqueous Extract on Germination and Seedling Growth of Phalaris minor: A Dose-Response Study

  • Rizwan Maqbool1
  • Iqra Anwar2
  • Burhan Khalid1&3
  • Muhammad Atiq Ashraf4
  • Talha Riaz5
  • Muhammad Ather Nadeem6

1. Introduction Allelopathy the chemical interaction between plants, is another process that has attracted widespread attention as a potential for sustainable agriculture[28]. It is defined as ‘an experiential process in which plants compete or cooperate by releasing allelochemicals, secondary metabolites into the environment that alter growth, survival or reproduction of neighboring plants [5, 26]. In general, allelopathy provides promising applications in weed management, crop protection, and also soil health improvement [2, 26]. Production and efficacy of allelochemicals are affected by different abiotic and biotic factors, including light, temperature, water availability, soil characteristics, and plant species [29]. Allelopathy provides an alternative strategy to reduce its use for environmental sustainability in agriculture [5, 26].             Allelochemicals are naturally released secondary metabolites (having a chemical composition different from primary metabolites) synthesized by organisms that possess ecological roles beyond primary metabolism [18, 20]. They are released into the surrounding environment through a variety of mechanisms and aid in plant defense, interference, and nutrient dynamics [20]. As a biochemical interaction between plants mediated by these chemicals, it can be stimulatory, inhibitory, or both [23]. Working in symbiosis with the crop, allelopathy in a crop production system can influence production from other crops, suppress plantings after a mono-crop, and likely lead to weed suppression as well [9].             Lepidium sativum, or garden cress, is a fast-germinating edible herb, [30].Lepidium sativum (cress) has significant allelopathic effects on surrounding plants. Its seed exudates have highly active allelochemicals and affect cell growth and organ morphology in receiver plants, especially by regulating cell expansion [19]. Lepidimoide, a major allelochemical of cress seed mucilage, was isolated which induced shoot expansion and root inhibition of some plant species (e.g.Lolium multiflorum, Maize and Tall Wheatgrass) [16]. Lepidium sativum itself is also affected by allelopathic effects from other plants. The germination and seedling growth of L. sativum were significantly inhibited by Lantana camara leaf extracts [15].  These results highlight the complex allelopathic interactions of L. sativum and its potential as a useful plant in agriculture.             Phalaris minor is a yield-reducing competitive weed in wheat crops, and its control is greatly affected by the extensive use of herbicides in weed management [6, 32]. Weeds like P.minor generally suffer highly competitive exclusions through the globalization of trade and international travel because, without a doubt, through competition and predation, they lose their habitat [17]. Most weeds are still managed extensively using herbicides as a tool, especially since weeds like P. minor are already showing resistance to multiple herbicide classes including ALS inhibitors, ACCase inhibitors, and Photosystem II inhibitors [27]. Now that populations have already evolved to some level of resistance, allelopathic management using plant-derived extracts has shown a potential to control its growth [19]. Such wide-ranging approaches may help us to control such species but, at the same time, reduce future evolution to resistance.             Phenolic compounds could play a remarkable role in seed germination and seedling growth, for instance, phenolic leaf-water extract of Plectranthusamboinicus and Ocimum basilicum could restrict the growth of common weeds Phalaris minor and Anagalis arvensis associated with Pisum sativum and significantly induce the growth and yield of the pea crop [13], however, aqueous extract of alfalfa showed allelopathic effects on Phalaris minor and gefarnate elicited substantially less germination of Lepidium sativum, but Glycyrrhiza glabra at lower concentration conferred relief for the germination of Lepidium sativum[11]. Moreover, the effect of phenolic herbicides on the germinability and morphological changes of the roots of Lepidium sativum was studied referring to this species as a good test species for toxicity assessment as it has a high germinability and good repeatability [4]. This highlights the diversity of plant-plant interactions[21], hence, the involvement of the phenolic compounds cannot be overlooked. However, phenolic effects on plant-plant interactions are dependent on the type of the compound, the concentration, and the target species. Therefore, further studies are needed to determine the mechanism and application of plant-derived phenolic compounds in plant-plant interactions.             The term hormesis was first used by Southam and Ehrlich in 1943: Exposure to toxins in small amounts causes beneficial stimulation whereas the same toxins in large amounts cause toxic inhibition-a biphasic dose-response phenomenon [25]. Hormesis is an adaptive, stress-responsive mechanism in diverse organisms, in the presence of different chemical and environmental stressors [8]. Hormetic responses are directly linked to acclimation, and phenotypic plasticity is linked to the evolution of organisms, in adapting to various environmental changes [8]. Therefore, the current study was planned to describe the effect of phenolic compounds of Lepediumsativam on Phalaris minor.             Although it is previously known that garden cress (Lepidium sativum) extracts are phytotoxic, few studies have been done on aqueous extracts, especially the impact on P. minor. We are exploring the potential to use Lepidium sativum (garden cress) as a natural alternative to the synthetic herbicide, controlling Phalaris minor through the application of its phytotoxic effects. The focus will be on exploring the phytotoxic effect of Lepidium sativum (garden cress aqueous extract) on the growth and germination of Phalaris minor and will be studied in this work. It is hypothesized that a higher concentration of L. sativum aqueous extract will induce a phytoxic effect on Phalaris minor.Current research was planned to explore the effect of Phenolic compounds of Lepediumsativam on the emergence and seedling growth of Phalaris minor as a bio-herbicide. 2. Material and Methods 2.1. Experimental site This study was conducted in the Weed Science Laboratory, Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture Faisalabad in the CRD management study. The three replications were used. In the lab, the garden cress allelopathic potential on the winter vegetable phalaris minor (Dumbi sittee) was assessed. For separating dry samples these samples were cut into two-centimeter pieces. After separating the chopped sample put in different soaking tanks for allelopathic water extract. It calculates in a 1:80 ratio. After taken out it runs through the cotton fabrics to take out the water from the given sample which is divided into different parts. As per the therapy the extracts dilute with 0, 0.25, 0.5, 10, 20, … Read more

Evaluation of Improved Soybean Varieties (Glycine max) Under Rain Fed Condition for Traits of Yield and Yield component at Ari Zone, South Ethiopia

  • Temesgen Jerjero
  • Mihretu Muluneh

INTRODUCTION The soybean crop as one of the valuable economically  the most important oil and pulse crop  Ethiopia and in the world due to its lot of different purpose advantages as a source of livestock, aquaculture feed, protein, oil for the human diet, and biofuel besides producing grain yield [1]). The soyabean crop has the character of a primary low-cost source of protein for animal feed and most pre packaged meals, soy-vegetable oil is another valuable product of the processing.Soybeans can produce at least twice as much protein per acre than many other major vegetable or grain crops [2]. Soybean is  the most important  crops  as a source of protein (40%),35% carbohydrate, and 5% ash on a dry matter basis. Most developing countries are faced with extensive malnutrition and food insecurity, high oil content (20%), the best ingredient for industrial food complexes, and It also has a superior amino acid profile compared to other legumes  [3]. Soybean crop is well known as to in improving and amending soil properties through nitrogen fixation and enhanced moisture retention [4]. In Ethiopia food processing plc company has imported and used soybeans to prepare balanced food for infants and adults[5] knowdays the factory has been trying to improve the food values of other food types by mixing them with soybean flour, which indicates the importance of soybeans and its increment on the market[6].Soybean in Ethiopia, are cultivated over wider agroecologies that have moderate annual rainfall (500-1500mm [7] and  the crop grows  well in  between 1300 and 1800 m.a.s.l. and it requires temperature ranging from 23- 25oC and medium relative humidity for optimum yield production[8] ,[9] and grows best on well-drained loamy soils that are high in fertility. The crop does well in slightly acidic to neutral soils having a pH of about 5.7 to 6.2. The crop is a short-day plant and most varieties require about 12 hours of light, although some are less sensitive [10]. The crop  production and productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa counter results   increasing trends in the past ten years ago and are expected to increase in the later   [11]. In our countery  Ethiopia,  soyabean crop   has a total  land coverage  of 36,635.79 ha and  812,346.59 quintals of production in yield , and 22.17 quintals per hectare of production. In SNNPR a total of 209.28 ha of land was covered, 2,684.09 quintals of production, and 12.83 quintals per hectare of production were recorded [12]. Know days  soybean  crop is  important  and supported by government and non governmental organizations. At regional level, the yield of soyabean was limited in production   than the average potential  yield (12.83 quintals per hectare) under optimium crop management practice . [12]. In  the South Ethiopia and Central Ethiopia Regionis, the yield was limited because of  none adaptation and promotion of relased    varieties, lack of crop management   rainful distribution problem   soil fertility problem ,  different diseases and insect pests [13]. Know days   approximately 34 soybean varieties have been registerd for production  by different national and regional  research centers in Ethiopian  [14]. However, improved soyabean evaluation and its performance was not done and  recommended  in the past in the  Ari Zone . Soybean is  potential crop  in production in the  area of South Ethiopia   and Ari  Zone araeas. Therefore the experiment was done to evaluating   the performance of  recentely released  varieties that have high yielder  and recommend  for production and productivity in Ari Zone of South Ethiopia   and other similar  areas . MATERIALS AND METHODS  Reseach Area  Description The research trial was conducted at the Jinka Agricultural Research Center, located in Ari Zone, during the 2021/22 and 2022/23 main cropping seasons. Ari Zone is situated in the southern part of Ethiopia, with its administrative center, Jinka city, located approximately 729 km south of Addis Ababa. The geographical coordinates of Jinka are 36°33’–37°67″E and 5°46’–6°57″N, at an altitude of 1,450 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.). The study area receives an average annual rainfall of 1,307.3 mm, distributed over two distinct seasons, and experiences average temperatures ranging from 21.0°C to 28.0°C. The soil at the experimental site is classified as sandy loam with a pH of 6.41, making it suitable for various agricultural practices [15]. Treatments and Experimental Procedures Twelve (12) improved soybean varieties such as:-  Nyala, Hawasa -95, Hawasa-04, Clark 63K, Melko bonsa, Gishama, Gazelle, Nova, Pawe-3, Afgat, Pawe-2, Coker-240 were evaluated in appropriate mothod of   randomized complete block design (RCBD) on (3) three replications. The trial had aplot  area of 4m x 5m (20 m2) separated by a distance of 1meter between plots within a block and 1.5 meter  between blocks within the experiment.  40 centimeter  between rows and 10 centimeter  between plants was maintained in spacing  and a seed rate of 60-70 kg/ ha was used according to the seed size of the crop. Cultivation, leveling, weeding, and other agronomic activities were applied equally to all the entry treatments at their proper time of application. Data Collection and Data Analysis Data collection was performed on both a plant and plot basis. Grain yield and hundred seed weight were recorded at the plot level, while key plant-based data were collected from selected plants within the middle rows of each plot. For parameters such as plant height, the number of pods per plant, and the number of seeds per pod, the average values of five randomly selected plants per experimental plot were used for statistical analysis. Grain yield data were measured from the five central rows of each plot and subsequently converted to a per-hectare basis. Hundred seed weights were determined by randomly selecting 100 seeds harvested from the five central rows of each plot and weighing them using a sensitive balance. For data analysis, the collected data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SAS software after verifying the assumptions of ANOVA. Treatment means were separated using the least significant difference (LSD) test at a 5% probability level. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS  Results of Analysis of Variance  Combined analysis of variance was done to identify  the effects of … Read more

Intercrop Production of Sesame with Green Gram Optimized for Humera, Ethiopia

  • Dawit Fisseha Weldearegay

Global sesame (Sesamumindicum) grain production is about 3,000,000 Mg yr-1 with about 1,200,000 Mg yr-1 traded with a value of $1 billion [1]. [2] Sesame is the main oil seed crop in Ethiopia with about 270,000 ha yr-1 planted and 172,000 Mg yr-1 harvested. There is a huge demand for sesame. Monocropping accounts for the majority of production. Low soil fertility and pest abundance have become major issues in the research area as a result of the repeated production of sesame on the same plot of land [3]. Its production has decreased and is no longer sufficient to meet the conventional income of the producers [4]. Yields are poor, though. The crop requires a lot of sunlight. Row spacing is a point of contention; the Tigray Agricultural Research Institute Humera Agricultural Research Center recommends 40 x 10 cm spacing, whereas the Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) suggests 80 x 10 cm. Green gram (Vigna radiate L. Wilczek) is a relatively minor pulse crop in Ethiopia but adapted to high temperatures with good market demand and adapted to intercropping [5]. Crop residues of green gram are valued for fodder. The crop is susceptible to wind damage during pod-fill due to lost pods [6]. Intercropping sesame with green gram has promise. The taller sesame plants intercept much sunlight while protecting green gram from wind damage. Since the interspecific facilitation systems clearly encouraged soil N supply and water complementary use, they were advantageous for increasing grain output and soil labile carbon input [7]. However, information for optimized management of the intercropping system is inadequate. The production of sesame is dominated by monocropping, and due to the repeated production of the crop on the same plot of land, low soil fertility and pest abundance have become major issues in the research area [3]. The crop’s production has decreased and is no longer sufficient to meet the conventional income of the producers [4], although yields are poor. The crop requires a lot of sunlight, and row spacing is a point of contention; the Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) suggests 80 x 10 cm spacing, while the Tigray Agricultural Research Institute Humera Agricultural Research Center recommends 40 x 10 cm spacing. At the Humera Agricultural Research Center (HuARC), located at 610 meters above sea level and at 14°15′ N and 36°37′ E, a field experiment was conducted in 2017. The climate in Humera is hot and semi-arid, with an average annual rainfall of 443.5 mm, 90% of which falls between June and September. With a mean summer temperature of 28.2°C, evapotranspiration is high [8]. With less than 2% organic matter, deep Vertisol clay is the most common form of soil. As most farmers did on their fields, sesame was grown at the experiment location for four years in a row. Prior to sowing, the area was harrowed and plowed using a moldboard attached to a tractor.Nationally released sesame variety known as setit1, local sesame variety, and released mung bean variety known as Arkebe were used in this trial. Three factorial experiments set with three replicates were applied to compare monoculture cropping with intercropping, sesame cv. Setit1 with a popular local cultivar, and row spacing of 40-, 60- and 80-cm. Days to maturity were 85-95, 90-105, and 63-70, respectively, for the Setit1 cultivar, the local sesame cultivar, and the green gram cultivar named. Plant height was >1.25 m for sesame and < 0.5 m for green gram. Plots were 4.8 by 2.5 m, with 1.5 m separating blocks and 1 m separating plots. Within row plant spacing was 10 cm for both crops and green gram row spacing was 40 cm with an additive intercrop planting pattern with green gram planted between rows of sesame. Planting was on 21 July for sesame and 4 August for green gram. Plant height, branch plant-1, green gram pod plant-1, sesame capsule plant-1, and 1000-kernel weight were determined for five randomly selected plants plot-1. The number of dropped pods was counted and divided by the estimated pod plot-1 to determine the percent dropped. Seed yields were determined from the harvest of the whole plot area. The oil content of sesame seed was determined from 40 g samples with Nuclear Magnetic Resolution at Holetta Agricultural Research Center in Ethiopia. Intercrop land productivity efficiency was measured as the land equivalent ratio (LER) [9] where LER = (sesame intercropped yield/sesame sole crop yield) + (green gram intercropped yield / green gram sole crop yield). Genstat 14 (Numerical Algorithms Group, Oxford, England) was used to do the analysis of variance and the Duncan multiple range test for means separation with a least significant difference of 5% [10]. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Yield and yield component 3.1.1 Sesame length of capsule bearing zone The maximum height at which the capsules can be held—also referred to as the sesame length of the capsule carrying zone—is one of the last elements that affects sesame production. Due to the combined effects of variety, cropping strategy, and row spacing, the analysis of variance showed a significant variation in the mean length of the capsule bearing zone (Table 1). Intercropping local and setit1 types at 40 cm row spacing had the lowest length scores among the interactions (47 cm and 42 cm, respectively), in contrast to intercropping at 60 cm (71 cm) and 80 cm (76 cm) row spacing. However, Table 1 shows no discernible difference between intercropping local at 60 and 80 cm spacing. There was no discernible difference in length between the monoculture system grown locally at 40 cm, 60 cm, and 80 cm row spacing, and 69 cm, 72 cm, and 75 cm, respectively.Maximum length of capsule bearing zone (83 cm)was recorded in mono cropping setit1 variety at 80 cm, mono setit1 at 60 cm (82 cm), intercropped setit1 at 80 cm (80 cm), intercropped setit1 at 60 cm (79 cm), mono local at 80 cm (75 cm) and intercropped local at 80 cm (76 cm) which showed insignificant difference between them (Table 1). [11]Found significant … Read more

Investigating Optimum Seed Rate for Maximum Productivity Potential of Sesame (Sesamumindicum L.)  in Tigray, Ethiopia

  • Dawit Fisseha Weldearegay
  • Mizan Amare
  • Fiseha Baraki
  • Zenawi Gebregergis

Introduction Sesame (Sesamumindicum L.), one of the world’s most important oil crops, is known for having a high percentage of oil and protein (between 50 and 60 percent) in its seeds [1, 2].Ethiopia grows sesame primarily for the market and for its oil-containing seed. According to the statement, the following elements influence plant population or seed rate: row width, crop species, soil and climate conditions, and agricultural use. Genetic and environmental factors affect plant density [3], [4]. [5] shown how plant density can impact a variety of traits, including seed yield, dry matter production, vegetative development duration, light conversion efficiency, canopy design, and crop economic productivity. Thus, the first stage in increasing production is to optimize plant density, which is the number of plants per unit area as well as the arrangement (spacing) of the plants on the ground. [6] Several studies have found that the rates of sesame seeds vary by location based on specific conditions. [7] Rain-fed sesame planting produced the highest yields, 1.5 and 2.0 kg ha-1, in the Sudanese state of North Kordofan. However, [2] showed that increasing the seed rate from 6 to 9 kg ha-1 boosted seed production.. For sesame single cropping, determining the seed rate is crucial. The government suggests an extraordinarily high 7–10 kg ha-1 for rain-fed sesame output in the Humera, Tigray, North West Ethiopia, based on observation studies. Sesame broadcasting sowing density has not been studied, despite the fact that hundreds of farmers in northern west Ethiopia use the broadcasting sowing technique. Determining the ideal spread seed rate for rain-fed production in the arid lowlands of North Western Ethiopia was the aim of this experiment. Materials and methods An explanation of the materials and experimental site The Humera Agricultural Research Center carried out a field trial in the Humera and Dansh districts of northwest Ethiopia during the main cropping season of 2010 and 2011 under rain-fed circumstances. Vertisol is the predominant soil reference group in the region [8]. Prior to sowing, the area was harrowed and plowed using a moldboard attached to a tractor. Each plot’s seeds were manually broadcast-planted by combining them with sand. Since all farmers employ the broadcasting method of sowing, we did the same. There was no fertilizer. Agronomic guidelines and/or farmer practices served as the basis for weeding and other cultural practices. For 2010 and 2011, planting took place from July 10 to July 13. Three replications of the randomized complete block design (RCBD) experiment each had a gross plot size of 10 m by 5 m. “Hirhir” a branching sesame cultivar that is widely produced in the area, was utilized. The following data were recorded: plant height, number of branches per plant, length of capsule bearing zone, number of pods per plant, days of 50% flowering, days of 90% maturity, and grain yield. Once the water content was adjusted to 7.5%, the seed yield of each net plot was weighed and converted to yield ha-1 [9]. Statistical analysis and data processing Using SAS software version 9.1 (SAS Institute Inc., SAS Campus Drive, Cary, North Carolina 27513, USA), analysis of variance was used to examine the impact of seed rate on sesame grain yield. Mean separations were assessed using Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) at the 5% probability level whenever a significant effect of the treatments was found. Result and Discussion Data on grain output, days of 50% flowering, days of maturity, branches per plant, length of capsule bearing zone, plant height, and pods per plant were collected during a two-year sequential experiment on sesame seed rate in two settings (two locations). All of the recorded agronomic data show no discernible differences in the combined analysis of variance (ANOVA) of replication. Days of flowering and days of maturity are less significantly different from one another, but the combined ANOVA of environment (location) is very significant for grain seed yield, branch per plant, length of capsule bearing zone, plant height, and pods per plant. With the exception of blossoming and maturity days, which do not change significantly, all parameters show extremely significant differences between treatments alone and the environment with treatments combination (Table 2). Days of 50% Flowering In contrast to the findings of [10], who asserted that there were significant changes in the number of days needed for 50% of the plants to blossom among seed rate treatments, the number of days of 50% flowering is not substantially different for all treatments (Table 3). Days Maturity Days of 90% maturity (DM) is not significantly different for all treatments except for 2 kg ha-1is highly significantly different than 6kg/ha (Table 3). The planting rate of 2 kg ha-1 of plants had a noteworthy and favorable impact on the remaining days until a plot achieved 50% physiological maturity [10]. Branches per Pant Significant differences in primary branches per plant were found for seed rate treatments (Table 3). Generally speaking, the number of branches per plant declines as the seed rate rises. Higher seed seed-rates, like 7 kg ha-1, 8 kg ha-1, and 9 kg ha-1, differ greatly from lesser seed-rates, like 1 kg ha-1, 2 kg ha-1, and 3 kg ha-1, in terms of the number of branches per plant (BPP).According to [1, 2, 7, 11, and 12], higher seed rates resulted in lower BPP, while lower seed rates had the highest BPP.The BPP of 3 kg ha-1 differs significantly from that of other treatments (Table 3).[2] Among other things, the plants’ increased access to water and space likely helped them grow more primary branches per plant-1 at a lower seed rate. The amount of branches per plant is a critical growth component that has a big impact on output. As a result, 3 kg ha-1 is the ideal seed rate since it produced the greatest amount of BPP, which increased yield. The results of this investigation supported the findings of [13, 14], who observed that sesame plants had more branches at lower densities. In a similar finding, [15] noted that fewer branches were present in … Read more