Volume 4 Issue 1 2025 – Page 2 – Journal of Plant Biota

Anatomical studies (Stem & Ovary) of Genus Datura L. (Solanaceae) in Karnataka, India

Rashmi Gulaguli
Shreyas Betageri
Vanaja G. Patgar
K. Kotresha

INTRODUCTION Diversity of Datura L. across South West and Central U.S.A. to Maxico is 14 species [7]. Latin Solanum “the nightshade plant” derived the family name as ‘Solanaceae’. The genus Datura belonging to the Solanaceae family comprises several species including some medicinal properties [10]. Cytological and tissue culture studies [13] have reported arrangement and variations among four distinct taxa in Datura and two distinct taxa in Withania. Anatomy and Morphology of stem in some speceis of Solanaceae [6] family has reported the variations in Solanum tuberosum L., Capsicum annum L. and Datura stramonium L. [12]. The growth of Datura inoxia was huge in normal water, but the average roots were long under wastewater. Datura inoxia demonstrated have strong adaptive potential under wastewater. Stem and leaf anatomy of nine Solanum species of Egypt to find useful taxonomic characters and indicate close interrelationships among the collected species include: the diversity of epidermis, cortex, vascular bundle and pith thickness of stem is varied for epidermis, mesophyll for leaves lamina and midrib. Ultimate moto of work is to solve taxonomic dispute among Solanum genus[11]. Microscopical investigation of three Datura species have recorded the variations among the stem sections between 3 taxa in Datura [5]. Morphological studies of flowering plants (Solanaceae) have reported variations in morphological aspects among 20 species belonging to Family Solanaceae which is toxic (Potent-alkaloids) in some conditions used as staple food. The present observation shows that majority of Solanaceae species have same morphological features of family [4]. MATERIAL METHODS Study area: The research was conducted across various districts. The plants from different localities of Karnataka were collected in different seasons from districts like Gadag, Dharwad, Belagavi, Hassan and Chikkamagaluru covering different agro-climatic zones to capture the diversity of Datura species. Collection & identification: Collection of species was carried out in different seasons (Summer, winter, and rainy), collected in triplet form for dissection, identification and anatomical studies. Identification using different district floras [(2); (3); (9); (1); (8)]. Anatomical studies: Collected stem samples were stored in water for one day, washed in 100 % alcohol, and sectioned and stained with safranin stain and observed under binocular microscope, recorded the characters with photographs. Ovary anatomy was selected small ovary which is slightly maturing, sectioned and observed under microscope with safranin stain. RESULTS During the survey five Datura species with two verities from different districts of Karnataka (Figure 1). The variations observed and studied among all the Datura species are described individually below. STEM ANATOMY OF GENUS DATURA L. IN KARNATAKA: I) Datura discolor Bernh. (Figure 2) The stem is circular. The transverse section of Datura discolor shows the presence of cuticle layer above the epidermis. The epidermis is 4-5 layered, cells varying from rectangular to cylindrical; these are tightly packed which bears trichomes arising from the epidermal layer. Cambium is about 4 layered having hexagonal cells. Endodermis and pericycle is single layered. It also bears Vascular bundles i.e., phloem and xylem. The Meta xylem, xylem and Proto xylem are arranged linearly towards the pith. Pith is hollow, where Parenchyma having thin cell walls and few chlorenchyma cells containing chloroplast are present. II) Datura ferox L. (Figure 2) The stem is circular. Shows multilayered cuticle layered above the epidermis which is about 7-8 layers from which trichomes arose. Hypodermis made up cuboidal shaped cells and are larger than epidermis and is one layered. Cortex is with irregular shaped (circular, ovate, elongate) cells and are collenchymatous. Endodermis 1or 2 layered with rectangular or barrel shaped thin wall. Pericycle 1-2 layered. Pholem is with two or many layered cells, Xylem are 5 and more layers which are continuous. Large pith is present at the center , which is composed of large parenchymatous and chlorenchymatous cells between them having oval structure. III) Datura innoxia Mill. (Figure 3) The stem is circular. Shows epidermis which is the outermost single layer, above which 2 layered cuticle coverings is present. Epidermis bears many trichomes having glandular and multicellular trichomes. Outer cortex is made up of collenchymarous cells, 2-3 layered cells similar to endodermis cells. Cortex is thin walled bearing 4-6 layers, and cells are circular oblong. Phloem are rectangular cells, 4- 6 layered. Xylem strands grows up to 15-20 layers. Below the xylem 4-5 layers of thin walled parenchymatous cells are present, it is compactly arranged, tangentially elongated or polygonal. Pith is large at the center; it is made of large parenchymatous cells along with chlorenchymatous cells and bearing hollow structure at the centre. IV) Datura metel L. (single white corolla) (Figure 3) The stem is circular. Shows two layered epidermis, above which a thin cuticle layer is observed. Cortex is made up of 4-5 layers having collenchymatous cells that are cuboidal in shape. Pericycle is about 2-3 layers. Phloem is about 3-4 layers that are rectangular in shape. Xylem cells are arranged radially beneath the phloem. Pith is large having paranchymatous and chlorenchymatous cells, ranging from hexagonal to circular in shape. V) Datura metel L. (single purple corolla) (Figure 4) The stem is circular. Epidermis is one layered made up of cuboidal shaped cells. Above which thick cuticle layer covering is observed. Hypodermal layer is larger, rectangular shape than the epidermal cells. Cortex, is made up of 8-10 layers having collenchymatous cells that are rectangular, oval, circular or irregular in shape. Endodermis is not prominent. Pericycle is 3-4 layered. Phloem is composed of 4-7 layers of rectangular, tangentially elongated cells. Radially arranged xylem cells are found below the phloem. Xylem patches penetrating into the pith region. Pith is large and composed of thin walled paranchymatous cells, circular with presence of chlorenchymatous cells in between. VI) Datura metel L. (Tri-petal purple) (Figure 4) The stem is circular. Thick cuticle covering, below which about 8-9 layers of epidermis is observed. Hypodermis comprises of Parenchyma and collenchymatous cells ranging from circular to hexagonal shapes of various size. Cortex comprises of 10-12 layers. Pericycle is about 4-5 layers. Phloem is composed of 5-6 layers. Xylem cells found penetrating into the pith … Read more

Effect of GA₃ and NAA on Growth and Yield of Cabbage

S. M. Abdul Gani¹
Md. Moinul Haque¹
Ronzon Chandra Das²
Rafio Rahmatullah ³
Md. Kayes Mahmud⁴
Md. Khayrul Islam Bashar⁴
Mirza Golam Morshed⁵
Md Toufiqul Islam⁵
khalid syfullah⁶

Introduction Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.), commonly referred to as “Badhacopy” in Bangladesh, belongs to the Brassicaceae family and is an important winter vegetable extensively grown across the country .It provides a wealth of essential nutrients like vitamins A, B, and C, along with minerals and beneficial bioactive compounds such as sinigrin glucoside, which enhance both its unique flavor and health-promoting properties. Additionally, cabbage is utilized in various culinary forms, including curries, salads, and pickles. The edible portion consists of tightly packed leaves forming the head, which is a vital economic trait. From a nutritional standpoint, every 100 grams of the edible green part of cabbage comprises about 92% water and supplies 24 kilocalories of energy, along with 1.5 grams of protein, 4.8 grams of carbohydrates, 40 milligrams of calcium, 0.6 milligrams of iron, 600 IU of carotene, 0.05 milligrams of riboflavin, 0.3 milligrams of niacin, and 60 milligrams of vitamin C. [1]. Cabbage also contains sulforaphane, a potent anti-carcinogenic compound, and increased consumption of plant-based foods such as cabbage has been linked to reduced risks of diabetes, obesity, heart disease, and overall mortality. Although cabbage is an important crop in Bangladesh, its average yield is relatively low at 16.06 tons per hectare, falling well behind countries like Japan (40.03 t/ha), South Korea (59.07 t/ha), and even neighboring India (17.88 t/ha). [2]. This yield gap can be attributed primarily to suboptimal management practices and limited adoption of yield-enhancing technologies. Utilizing plant growth regulators (PGRs) is one promising approach to boosting cabbage production, as they significantly influence plant growth, development, and yield improvement. Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are organic substances that can alter various physiological functions in plants, even when applied in minimal amounts. Auxins like naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) mainly promote cell elongation, whereas gibberellins (GA₃) encourage both cell division and elongation. [3]. External application of these growth regulators has been extensively researched across different crops, showing notable enhancements in plant growth and yield. [4]. Research indicates that GA₃ boosts plant height, leaf expansion, and head development, whereas NAA supports root growth and increases head weight. [5,6]. Research indicates that cabbage shows a positive response to foliar applications of GA₃ and NAA, resulting in increased leaf count and enhanced marketable yield. [7,8]. Drobek M. [9] discovered that applying GA₃ at 60 ppm and NAA at 80 ppm produced the highest yield of cabbage heads.. Similarly, PAINKRA, B. [8] reported the highest yield when GA₃ was applied at 50 ppm, with NAA at 50 ppm closely following. Other studies suggest that GA₃ at 100 ppm yields the best results for cabbage production [10,11], while maximum head yield was also reported with NAA at 50 ppm. Although promising results have been observed in other regions, there is a lack of research on the effectiveness of these growth regulators in Bangladesh, emphasizing the need for further studies. This study assessed the effects of GA₃ and NAA on cabbage and identified their optimal concentrations for maximizing growth and yield. Materials and Methods Location and Study Period The study was conducted at the Horticulture Farm of Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) in Joydebpur, Gazipur, from October 2016 to March 2017. It aimed to evaluate the effects of gibberellic acid (GA₃) and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) on the growth and yield of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata). Soil and Climatic Conditions The experimental field had sandy clay loam soil with a pH of approximately 6.0, belonging to the Chita soil series (AEZ-28). The climate was subtropical, with heavy rainfall between May and September, followed by a dry period for the rest of the year. Planting Material and Treatments The test variety used was ‘Atlas-70’ cabbage, sourced from Siddik Bazaar, Gulistan, Dhaka. The experiment included eight treatments: Study Design and Field Layout The experiment used a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. It involved 24 plots (1.8 m × 2 m) with 50 cm × 60 cm plant spacing. Blocks were separated by 0.75 m, and plots within blocks had 0.5 m spacing. Land Preparation and Fertilizer Application The field was plowed, exposed to sunlight for a week, and leveled. Cinocarb 3G insecticide (4 kg/ha) was applied to control soil-borne pests. Fertilizers were applied following Islam et al. (2004) recommendations: Growth Regulator Preparation and Treatment Application A 1000 ppm GA₃ stock solution was prepared, diluted to obtain 50 ppm, 75 ppm, and 100 ppm solutions, and applied using a mini hand sprayer at 30 and 45 days after transplanting. A similar method was followed for NAA solutions. Seedling Raising and Transplanting Cabbage seedlings were raised at Olericulture Division, HRC, BARI, Gazipur, on 3 m × 1 m seedbeds. Decomposed cow dung (5 t/ha), 200 g TSP, and 150 g MoP were applied. Seeds were sown on November 26, 2016, and transplanted at 27 days old (December 22, 2017). Intercultural Operations Harvesting and Data Collection Cabbage was harvested between February 28 and March 8, 2017, based on head compactness. Data were collected from five randomly selected plants per plot, while total yield was measured on a per-plot basis. Recorded Parameters Data Processing and Analysis Data were analyzed using ANOVA in Statistics 10.0, and mean comparisons were conducted using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at a 5% significance level. Result and Discussion Plant height The application of GA₃ and NAA has been shown ( Fig 1) to significantly influence plant height in cabbage cultivation. In a study evaluating various concentrations of these plant growth regulators, the tallest plants were observed by applying of 75 ppm GA₃, reaching a height of 23.00 cm. This was statistically comparable to treatments with 50 ppm GA₃, 100 ppm GA₃, and 60 ppm NAA. In contrast, the shortest plants, measuring 17.25 cm, were recorded in the control group, which did not receive any growth regulator. The increase in plant height resulting from GA₃ and NAA treatments can be attributed to their roles in modulating physiological processes such as cell elongation and division, thereby promoting enhanced vegetative growth. GA₃, in particular, … Read more

Phytochemical and Proximate Studies on Justicia secunda vahl (Blood root)

Ogbuozobe, G. O.
Obidiegwu, A. J.
Anukwuorji, C. A.
Ikegbunam, N. C.
Egboka, T. P.

Introduction Justicia secunda is a flowering plants belonging to the family Acanthaceae. It has over 700 species. They are commonly found most parts of Africa and America. It hosts many insects such as butterfly. Available data confirmed that J. secunda currently domesticated in the sub-saharan Africa originated from a part of America. The name “Justicia” is in honour of the Scottish horticulturist James Justice (1698–1763) [1]. It is commonly known as St.john’s bush but “blood leaf” or “blood root” in Barbados [2]. In Nigeria, the igbos call it “Obara Yom Yom” or” ogwu obara ” meaning ” blood multiplier” or ” blood tonic”. Ethnobotanical Significance and Distribution of Justicia secunda Justicia secunda, commonly known as “blood root” or “blood leaf,” holds various local names reflecting its cultural and medicinal importance across Nigeria. Among the Yorùbá people, it is referred to as “Èwẹ Èjẹ” (blood leaf) or “Èwẹ Ajẹ́rì” (Jehovah Witness leaf), the latter name highlighting its traditional use as a natural alternative to blood transfusion—particularly valued by members of the Jehovah’s Witness faith who may decline conventional transfusion procedures for religious reasons. In South-Eastern Nigeria, particularly among the Igbo-speaking communities, the plant is locally called “Obara Bundu,” emphasizing its association with blood restoration. The Ogbia people of Otuoke-Otuaba in Bayelsa State, located in the Niger-Delta region, refer to it as “Asindiri” or “Ohowaazara.” Justicia secunda thrives in humid environments, often found growing in moist soils near rivers, streams, and creeks. Its distribution spans tropical and pantropical regions of the world, where it is valued not only for its medicinal uses but also for its ecological adaptability. Medicinal plants according to World Health Organization [3] is defined as herbal preparations made by introducing plants materials to extract, fractionation, purification, concentration or other biological or physical processes which maybe produced for herbal products or for immediate consumption4. Most drug are produced both in orthodox and traditional medicine using medicinal plants. The importance of medicinal plants in health care delivery system cannot be over-emphasized because over 50% of the world population use it for treatment and prevention of various diseases that affaect both children and adults. It is a known fact that orthodox drugs are expensive, not readily available and most have side effects in some remote places, hence the recent increase in the usage of medicinal plants in these areas. Socio-ethnic preference and indigence may likely be part of the reason for the recent shift. Justicia secunda leaf is used in the treatment of anemia in some parts of Africa especially Jehovah’s Witness believers. The plant is referred to as blood booster. This is also confirms the scientific basis of the doctrine of signature; decoction from the leaf produce red colour. [5,6]. Ethno-medicinal studies on the plant proved that every part of the plant is useful especially in folk medicine. Athough the leaf and the roots are mostly used. The effectiveness of the extract in the treatment of ilments especially diabetes has been confirmed by various researchers. This was done by the leaf extract [7]. Its microbial activity on some bacteria has also been proven [8]. The plant has low glucose deficiency and anti-biabetic effects9. This proved by an empirical study conducted with model organisms, while the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities have also been reported [10]. The reactive substances in this plant are responsible for most of these activities. Phytochemicals also referred to as phytoconstituents are bioactive compounds that play significant role in disease prevention and control. This is an essential feature of the plant-derived chemicals. Primarily, these chemicals are produced for the protection of plants but findings from researchers proved that they also protect man against diseases. Over one thousand phytochemicals in plants have been studied and documented. Common examples of phytochemicals are alkaloids, terpeniods, steroids, flavonoids, tannins and phenolic compounds [11], phytochemicals, also called secondary metabolites are usually abundant in various parts of therapeutic plants including J. secunda, they have protective mechanism and defend plants from various stress12. In Nigeria, Justicia secunda Vahl is commonly cultivated around homesteads, where it often serves dual purposes as both a living fence and a medicinal herb. The plant is valued for its ease of propagation; it can be readily grown from stem cuttings by simply inserting the stem 1–2 inches into moist soil. One of its most notable features is the purplish-reddish sap, often referred to as “blood juice,” which is extracted from the leaves either by soaking in water or by boiling. This extract is typically consumed as a herbal tea believed to have blood-enhancing properties. In various regions of the country, the fresh leaves of J. secunda are also consumed raw or used in combination with other medicinal plants such as “nchuanwu” (scent leaf, Ocimum gratissimum) and Moringa oleifera as culinary ingredients to enhance the nutritional and medicinal value of local dishes like yam porridge and stews. Despite its widespread application in Nigerian folkloric medicine, scientific validation remains limited, with relatively few pharmacological studies conducted to date on this potentially valuable species [13]. This study is aimed at identifying the phytochemicals and Proximate components of Justicia secunda vahl which will be useful in providing information that could lead to further utilization of the plant either for medicinal purposes or other uses in the future and to establish the importance of Justicia secunda vahl plant. Materials and methods Collection and Identification of Plant Sample Fresh leaves of Justicia secunda were collected on November 8th, 2022, from Obeagu Village, Agulu, located in Anaocha Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria. The plant specimen was subsequently identified and authenticated by a taxonomist in the Department of Botany, Faculty of Biosciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. A voucher specimen was deposited in the department’s herbarium with the reference number NAUH-203B. Preparation of plant sample for phytochemical extraction. Each leaf was spread on the laboratory bench and carefully inspected for the presence of variegated or extraneous materials such as dirt and insect larvae. Healthy leaves were sorted and washed under running water without squeezing to … Read more

Comparative analysis of Azadirachta indica and Trichoderma viride in the management of fungal-induced rot in Ipomoea batatas

Achugbu, A.N
Akubuko, M.J.
Omaka, O
Ilodibia, C.V.

INTRODUCTION Cultivated in many countries, including sub-Saharan Africa, sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas, L.), a root crop of the Convolvulaceae family, are an important secondary crop that contributes to household food security in many countries (15, 19, 21). The yellow-orange cultivars contain variable, but occasionally large, quantities of carotenoids, which act as precursors of vitamin A (20). Microorganisms, primarily fungi, can infect sweet potato roots at various stages, including field, harvest, and storage stages. Infection is primarily facilitated by mechanical injuries of the roots and environmental conditions (25). These cultivars combine a number of advantageous characteristics that give them great potential as food (26). Azadirachtin is the primary constituent of seeds that has both antifeedant and poisonous effects on insects. It is a complex tetranortriterpenoid limonoid. (14). Both Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA were susceptible to the in vitro antibacterial activity of the neem leaf ethanol extract, with the largest zones of inhibition seen at 100% concentration (21). According to Nawrocka et al. (16), secondary metabolites have the ability to stimulate plant growth, function as antibacterial agents, and supply abundant resources for the production of agricultural antibiotics. Neem has the ability to scavenge free radicals because of its abundance of antioxidants (7). One of the most prevalent culturable fungi, Trichoderma is found in a wide range of ecological diversity. The genus is widely distributed in root and soil ecosystems as well as plant waste, and it is free-living, cosmopolitan, facultatively anaerobic, filamentous, and asexually reproducing. Trichoderma has long been recognized as a microbial biocontrol agent that can replace chemical fungicides in the fight against the diverse range of fungus responsible for root rot, soilborne, and foliar infections (6). The term “antibiosis” primarily describes Trichoderma’s capacity to produce antagonistic compounds that prevent the growth of plant pathogenic fungi (10, 9, 13, 23, 3). Trichoderma employs this phenomenon of antibiosis to manufacture low-molecular-weight, diffusible, specialized chemicals or an antibiotic with antifungal and antibacterial effects. Antibiotics can enter host cells, function as metabolic inhibitors, or hinder protein synthesis (translational routes), and prevent the target pathogen from producing metabolites, growing, sporulating, absorbing nutrients, or forming cell walls, depending on their biochemical makeup. Trichoderma can create hundreds of antimicrobial secondary metabolites, including as trichomycin, gelatinomycin, chlorotrichomycin, and antibacterial peptides. (12). The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of Azadirachta indica leaf extracts and Trichoderma viride in the control of fungi causing rot in Ipomoea batatas. MATERIALS AND METHODS AREA OF STUDY The Maeve Academic Research Laboratory in Awka served as the study’s location. COLLECTION OF MATERIALS Samples of Ipomoea batatas were procured from the Eke Nibo market and kept in sterile paper bags. The Azadirachta indica leaves were collected from a farmland in Okpuno Awka while Trichoderma viride was collected from Maeve Academic research laboratory Awka PREPARATION OF PLANT SAMPLE FOR PHYTOCHEMICAL EXTRACTION After being left to dry at room temperature for five days, the plant samples were blended into a powder using an electric blender. One hundred milliliters of ethanol were used to extract fifteen grams (15g) of the sample for thirty minutes after it had been weighed using a Soxhlet extractor. The extract was stored for phytochemical and antibacterial testing after being moved into a 250 ml conical flask. PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS Qualitative Analysis (5) Phenol Test: Add a few drops of a diluted ferric chloride solution to test for phenol to a test tube containing five milliliters (5ml) of the extract. The presence of phenols is indicated by the production of a red, blue, green, or purple colouring. Alkaloids Test: The extract was pipetted into a test tube to check for alkaloids in five milliliters (5ml). Using Mayer’s reagent (potassium mercuric iodide), the filtrate was thoroughly examined. Alkaloids are present when the precipitate is yellow in color. Keller-Killani Test for Cardiac Glycoside: Five milliliters (5 ml) of extract were mixed with a few drops of glacial acetic acid, 10% ferric chloride, and concentrated sulfuric acid. The presence of cardiac glycosides is indicated by the reddish-brown appearance at the intersection of the two liquid layers. Anthraquinone glycosides: Bontrager’s test for anthraquinone glycosides involved adding diluted sulfuric acid to five milliliters (5 ml) of extract, boiling it, and filtering it. Then, adding an equivalent volume of benzene or chloroform to the cold filtrate, the organic layer was separated, and ammonia was added, causing the ammonia layer to turn pink or red. Test for Flavonoids: A few drops of ammonia solution were combined with five milliliters of extract. Flavonoids are indicated by their yellow or orange appearance. Test for Tannins: In a test tube, two milliliters (5 ml) of a 10% ferric chloride solution were added to five milliliters (5 ml) of water extract of every plant part. The presence of tannins is indicated by a blue-black precipitate. Test for Saponin: To a test tube containing five milliliters (5 ml) of the plant sample two milliliters of distilled water were added to the plant sample, and it was vigorously shaken. The presence of saponin is indicated by the volume of persistent froth or bubbles that form. Test for Steroids and Terpenes: A test tube containing five milliliters (5 ml) of sample extract was mixed with two milliliters of acetic anhydride and a few drops of strong sulfuric acid. Steroids are indicated by blue-green rings between layers, while terpenes are indicated by pink-purple rings. Quantitative Analysis Tannin: As stated by Ejikeme et al. (2) and Amadi et al. (1). The tannin content was quantitatively ascertained using an analytical method. The Folin-Denis reagent was made by dissolving 50 g of sodium tungstate (Na2WO4) in 37 cm3 of distilled water. After adding 25 cm3 of orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4) and 10 g of phosphomolybdic acid, the reagent was refluxed for two hours, cooled, and diluted with 500 cm3 of distilled water. In a conical flask, 2g of the material was mixed with 50ml of distilled water. This was cooked gradually on an electric hot plate for an hour before being filtered using number 42 (125 mm) Whatman filter … Read more

Studies on Fungi Affecting Maize [Zea Mays L.] Grains in Storage: A Review

Adaeze Nnedinma Achugbu
Ilodibia Chinyere Veronica

INTRODUCTION Suleiman et al. [62], asserts that Zea mays L., sometimes known as maize in the US and Canada, is the third most significant cereal crop in the world, behind rice and wheat. Due to its beneficial effects on health and the utilization of its products and by-products, it is known as the cereal of the future. Several applications, such as food preparation, animal feed, and ethanol manufacturing, have been projected to raise the demand for maize by 50%. It might be an essential grain for much of the world, including Asia, Latin America, and Africa. One of the most significant crops in the world, Zea mays L. provides the staple diet of more than 1 billion people in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa [23]. A crop with a short life cycle, maize needs a warm temperature as well as the right handling and management. According to Dilip and Aitya [18], it is a lucrative animal feed, human food, and raw material for a few companies. Zea mays L. is the most common cereal grain by generation, although it comes in third place as a staple food, after rice and wheat. Although there are many different explanations for this fact, some of them have to do with social or cultural preferences because maize is grown as animal feed in several countries [29]. Zea mays L. is a multipurpose crop that provides food and energy for people as well as fodder for farm animals, poultry, and birds. Its grains are used as raw materials to make a variety of mechanical products and have amazing nutritional value [2]. According to Niaz and Dawar [45], grains are essential for the production of glucose, carbohydrates, and oil. Although food composition data is important for dietary planning and provides information for epidemiological researchers [4], little is known about the nutritional makeup of the various types of maize. Given that malnutrition is the cause of a significant number of metabolic disorders and diseases and that maize is the most common bread grain consumed by the majority of people worldwide, the development of high-yielding maize cultivars with improved sugar and starch content in the kernels may lead to their increased use in human and industrial applications [43]. Since a significant amount of the grain [maize] is harvested and stored in hot, humid conditions, most farmers in tropical and subtropical nations need the appropriate skills, equipment, and drying methods [69]. In this way, the maize is kept warm and slightly moist, which can accelerate grain breakdown and encourage the growth of bacteria, fungi, and insects within the grains. Fungi, which show up as mold or caking on the contaminated grain or ear, are the most common kind of contamination in grains that have been stored. The grain’s color, vitality, and nutritional content all decline. The most feared consequence of fungal attack is the production of toxic substances called mycotoxins, which harm both humans and animals [51, 15]. Fungi are one of the main causes of maize grain deterioration and loss [48]. If the right conditions are present, fungi can damage farmers’ maize by 50–80% while it is being stored, according to Binyam [11]. Certain kinds of fungi may cling to maize seeds while they are being stored, degrading them or just continuing to exist and contaminating young seedlings. Among the fungal genera frequently identified in stored maize grains are Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and a few xerophytic species, some of which can produce toxins [11]; the moisture level of the product can affect the growth of these fungi [22]; temperature, storage duration, and the degree of contagious contamination before storage, as well as insect and mite movement, promote the spread of fungi [61]; there is a common increase in the use of contaminated grain that contains mycotoxins, which results in specific health problems, including death [35, 67]. Fusarium attacks more than 50% of maize grain before harvest and produces mycotoxin [65], while Aspergillus flavus becomes systemic and produces aflatoxin in seedlings of maize and damaged stored corn. According to Uzma and Shahida [65], fungi are the second most common cause of maize loss and weakening, behind insects. Maize is hygroscopic, meaning it tends to collect or release moisture, just like other food items that are kept in storage. Even if the portion is adequately dried after harvest, it will still retain moisture from the environment if it is kept in a damp, humid environment [17]. As a result, the maize will have more moisture, which will facilitate better disintegration. Insect and microbe growth, as well as climatic factors like temperature and relative humidity, should all be avoided while storing high-quality maize [52]. The current estimates of the annual cost of grain loss in poor nations owing to insects and microbes destroying grain storage range from $500 million to $1 billion, according to Campbell et al. [12], because they raise the temperature and moisture content of the grain, insects make it easier for mold to grow by creating attack points. Due to the production of mycotoxins, particularly aflatoxins, fungus growth in maize poses a major risk to both humans and animals. Storage factors like temperature, relative humidity, and length of storage affect the fungi’s ability to produce aflatoxin in the grain [62]. The conditions that cause stored maize to spoil are the focus of this review. Finding a workable, affordable, and non-toxic way to stop fungal infection and mycotoxin load in stored maize grains is crucial. 2.0 MYCOTOXINS Filamentous fungi produce mycotoxins, which are low-molecular-weight normal products, or tiny particles, as auxiliary metabolites. As a result of their ability to infect and kill humans and other vertebrates, these metabolites form a chemically and toxicologically diverse array that is grouped. It should come as no surprise that many mycotoxins have overlapping toxicities to microbes, plants, and invertebrates. Around 100,000 turkey chickens perished in a strange emergency outside London, Britain, in 1962, which led to the coining of the word “mycotoxin.” [9, 10]. The mycotoxins with the greatest agro-economic relevance are … Read more

Characterization of Juvenile Kola (Cola spp.) in Nigeria Using Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) Markers

Sobowale Ibrahim Olalekan ¹
Adenuga Omotayo Olalekan¹
Adebiyi Solomon³
Orisajo Samuel Bukola²
Areola Oluwatobi James¹

1. Introduction Economically,Kola is a significant commodity crop that contributes to local livelihoods and agricultural diversification. The cultivation and trade of Kola products create employment opportunities and encourage smallholder farming, thus enhancing food security and community resilience. Furthermore, as the global demand for caffeine and specialty beverages continues to rise, Kola holds promise for expanding markets and fostering economic growth within the region [1] [2]. The kola nut, derived from the fruit of the Kola tree, holds a significant place in both cultural traditions and nutritional value. Morphologically, these seeds exhibit three distinct colors: white, red, and pink. Each hue not only contributes to its visual appeal but also signifies varying levels of caffeine and theobromine, compounds that are essential for its stimulating properties. In terms of nutritional composition, the kola nut is rich in key chemical elements, including water, fat, ash, fiber, carbohydrates, and proteins. Kola nuts help to reduce the sensations of hunger and tiredness [3]. Kola nuts are characterized by a significant caffeine concentration, typically ranging from 1.84 to 2.56%. This inherent stimulant property has historically contributed to their utilization in various cultural and commercial contexts. The presence of this substantial caffeine level distinguishes kola nuts from other botanical products [4]. The burgeoning interest in natural remedies has propelled nuts and their extracts into prominence across Europe and North America. Beyond their traditional culinary applications, these resources are increasingly utilized in alternative medicinal practices and as components in diverse industrial products, including soft drinks, confectionery, animal feed, liquid soaps, and dyes [1] [2] [5]. Numerous medicinal properties have been ascribed to the kola nut, including its purported efficacy in treating infections, dermatological conditions, ulcers, and oral discomfort. Furthermore, anecdotal evidence suggests its use in alleviating morning sickness, intestinal ailments, headaches, depression, and diminished libido, as well as respiratory and gastrointestinal disorders [6] [7]. kola nuts are traditionally purported to provide diverse health benefits, such as digestive aid, hangover relief, support for menstrual regulation and labor complications [8] [7]. Kola nut trees, indigenous to the tropical forests of West Africa, hold considerable cultural importance. Beyond their botanical characteristics, these trees are integral to the social, religious, and ceremonial practices of numerous indigenous communities within the region. The kola nut itself thus serves as more than just a product of the forest, functioning as a symbolic element deeply embedded in local traditions [7] [9]. It is utilized at weddings, child naming ceremonies, chief installation ceremonies, funerals, and sacrifices offered to many African mythological gods [7] [9]. Kola cultivation, while vital for both health and economic stability, presents significant challenges to producers. These challenges include reproductive barriers such as sterility and incompatibilities in pollination, exacerbated by undesirable agronomic traits such as excessive tree height, diminished nut production, and extended maturation timelines. These factors collectively hinder kola production efficiency and profitability. To improve and advance its research attention, accurate genetic diversity studies of the existing Kola germplasm in Nigeria are needed to assist in selecting suitable parents for subsequent breeding programs. Several projects, including the collection of Kolaaccessions from different farmer fields in different locations in Nigeria, have been conducted, although with no distinguishing features. These are maintained as field gene banks with the aim of effectively incorporating them in breeding programs. Molecular characterization, which highlights the genetic diversity and relationships among various groups of different accessions, is required for direct and more reliable selection of Kola accessions. Intersimple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers represent a valuable tool for discerning genetic variation within crops and tree species. Recent application of this technology to Kola accessions within the Institute’s germplasm collection has facilitated the assessment of existing genetic diversity. Such characterization is crucial for comprehending the patterns of diversity and, ultimately, enhancing desirable traits through targeted breeding strategies. 2. Materials and methods 2.1 Plant Materials and Sample Collection This study utilized forty Kola accessions maintained in a newly established germplasm collection at the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria Headquarters in Ibadan (Table 1). Fresh, young leaf samples were collected from each of the selected accessions and carefully preserved in appropriately labeled and sealed bags for subsequent analysis. Following collection, samples were immediately transferred on ice to the bioscience laboratory at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan. Upon arrival, DNA extraction and subsequent genetic profiling were conducted utilizing the Intersimple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) marker procedure. 2.2 DNA Extraction Leaf samples underwent a DNA extraction protocol commencing with mechanical disruption via vortexing in the presence of steel balls and silica gel. Subsequently, a preheated extraction buffer was applied, followed by incubation and homogenization. Protein precipitation was achieved through the addition of potassium acetate and chloroform isoamyl alcohol, with centrifugation separating the supernatant. DNA precipitation was then induced using isopropanol and a subsequent cold incubation, followed by ethanol washes and pellet air-drying. Finally, the DNA pellet was resuspended in ultrapure water, treated with RNase to remove RNA, and incubated. 2.3 Electrophoresis of DNA DNA extraction from leaf tissue was successfully confirmed via agarose gel electrophoresis. A 1% agarose gel was prepared by dissolving agarose powder in 1x TAE buffer, followed by the addition of EZVision DNA stain after cooling. DNA samples, combined with loading buffer, were then electrophoresed alongside a molecular weight ladder. Post-electrophoresis, the gel was visualized under UV transillumination, with the presence of distinct DNA bands indicating successful DNA extraction. 2.4 Polymerase chain reaction The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed utilizing a mixture of Taq 2X Master Mix, forward and reverse primers, DNA template, and nuclease-free water, combined in specified volumes. The thermocycler program commenced with an initial denaturation, followed by 36 cycles of denaturation, annealing, and elongation, each with designated temperatures and durations. A final elongation step was implemented, succeeded by a holding temperature of 10°C. 2.5 DNA scoring and analysis Following PCR amplification, amplified fragments were separated via agarose gel electrophoresis and visualized with UV illumination. Alleles were scored binarily based on band presence (1), absence (0), or missing data (m). Polymorphism percentage was determined by dividing the number of … Read more

Efficacy of Insecticides in Managing Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith) on Maize Crop Under Natural Field Condition

Ghana Shyam Bhandari¹
Priyanka Bhandari²
Lalit Sah ³

INTRODUCTION Maize (Zea mays L.) is a major cereal crop in Nepal, widely cultivated in the hills, mountains, and Terai regions. It serves as both a staple food and an important feed for livestock, playing a vital role in the country’s food security and agricultural economy. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development [18], maize is grown on a total area of 940,256 hectares, with an annual production of 2,976,490 metric tons and an average yield of 3.16 metric tons per hectare. Various factors affect maize yield, with insect pests emerging as a significant challenge in recent years. Among these, the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) has become a major invasive pest of economic importance, primarily infesting maize. Its invasion in Nepal was first reported in the Nawalpur district [4], and it has since spread to other parts of the country. The pest attacks maize throughout the year under favorable environmental conditions, targeting the crop at all stages of growth seedling to harvest and feeding on all parts of the plant except the roots. [10] estimated maize production losses due to fall armyworm at USD 2.481 to 6.187 million per annum. This polyphagous pest feeds on more than 350 plant species [19] and causes significant yield losses in economically important crops such as maize, cotton, soybean, and beans [21], [7]. Yield losses in maize due to fall armyworm infestation can reach as high as 30% reported by [2], 32% by [16] and 33% by [3]. There is a difficulty in the management of Spodoptera frugiperda because it has a wide host range and, high fecundity rate, with multiple generations within a year [8]. In Nepal, chemical control measures are predominantly used to manage fall armyworm infestations. Effective insecticides for its control include chlorantraniliprole, spinosad, spinetoram, and novaluron. However, these products are often expensive and unaffordable for many farmers. Frequent application of insecticides can also lead to the rapid development of resistance, as observed in other regions [13]. These insecticides are not immune to resistance development. [20] reported resistance in fall armyworms to chlorantraniliprole (160-fold), spinetoram (14-fold), and spinosad (8-fold). Consequently, the continuous exploration of new insecticides is essential for the effective management of fall armyworms. This study aims to evaluate selected cost-effective and economically viable synthetic insecticides currently available in the market to support Nepalese farmers in combating fall armyworm infestations. MATERIALS AND METHODS Experimental site and Design This experiment was conducted in the research field of the National Maize Research Program (NMRP), Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal during winter seasons of 2022 and 2023. The research location has latitude 27º 40’ N, longitude 84º 19’ E, and 228 meter above sea level. Six insecticides including untreated control were studied in RCB design with 4 times replication. The maize variety (Rampur hybrid-10) was sown at row to row and plant to plant with a spacing of 60×25 cm in a plot size of 8 rows of five-meter length. All the crop-raising practices including cultural practices, fertilizer application and weed management were followed as per recommendation of NMRP, Rampur, Chitwan. The first spray was given at 15 days after seed sowing as foliar application except for the control, whereas the second and third application was done at 15 days intervals after the first spray. Data to be taken In each treatment, the middle four rows were sampled for leaf and ear injury measurements. Leaf and ear damage were scored through visual observation using the scoring scale of 1–9 reported by [9] (Table 2). Field data were collected three days after each treatment application. The same sample plants were examined in each plot at harvest, and ear damage was measured using the rating scale developed by [9]. Yield-attributing traits, namely cob length and cob diameter, were measured using a Vernier caliper. Grain yield was calculated at 15% moisture using the formula provided below [24]. The data were entered into Microsoft Excel 2016, and GENSTAT (18th edition) was used for data analysis. The comparison of treatment means for significant differences was conducted at a 0.05 probability level [12]. Correlation analysis with weather parameters was also performed. Climate and weather can significantly influence the growth, development, and distribution of insects. Weather data for the experimental period were recorded from the weather station at the National Maize Research Program, Rampur, and are presented in Figure 1. Weather parameters Climate and weather can significantly influence the growth, development, and distribution of insects. Weather parameters were recorded during the experimental period from the weather station established at the National Maize Research Program, as presented below in Figure 1. RESULT Statistical analysis revealed that all treatments were significantly different from the untreated control (p < 0.05) in terms of plant damage and grain yield. However, no significant differences were observed in cob length, cob diameter, and thousand-grain weight (Tables 3 and 4). Among the treatments, Spinosad 45% SC was the most effective, achieving the lowest damage score (1.1) and plant damage percentage (5.2%) due to fall armyworm, followed by Flubendiamide 480 SC (19.7%) and Thiamethoxam 12.6% + Lambda-cyhalothrin 9.5% ZC (31.7%), based on visual observations, compared to the untreated control (84.0%). Similarly, the highest grain yield (9.36 mt/ha) was recorded in the Spinosad 45% SC-treated plot, followed by plots treated with Flubendiamide 480 SC (8.49 mt/ha) and Thiamethoxam 12.6% + Lambda-cyhalothrin 9.5% ZC(8.07 mt/ha), as compared to the untreated control (6.54 mt/ha). While MP AP3Grease and Thiamethoxam 25% WG were the least effective among the treatments, they were still significantly superior to the untreated control. In second year experiment,statistical analysis showed that all treatments were significantly different as compared to untreated control (p<0.05) in the case of plant damage and grain yield measurement but non-significant results were found in cob length, cob diameter, and thousand-grain weight (Table 5 and 6). The lower plant infestation (3.8%) due to fall armyworm was found in spinosad 45% SC treated plot followed by flubendiamide 480 SC (22.1%) and thiamethoxam 12.6%+ lambda-cyhalothrin 9.5%ZC (24.7%) in visual observation as compared … Read more

Molecular Marker Research for Conservation Genomics: Assessing the Genetic Diversity of Acacia Tree Species in Kenya

Mwangi Denis Muiruri
Martin Ngunjiri Kanyeki
Chepngetich Mercy

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Information Acacia trees are prominent components of ecosystems in Kenya, playing crucial roles in soil enrichment, biodiversity maintenance, and supporting numerous wildlife species. The acacia classification is of the kingdom: Plantae, order: Fabales, family: Fabaceae, genus: Vachellia, and species: V. nilotica. The Fabaceae or Leguminosae family includes plants like Peas, beans, or legumes family, is the third largest Angiosperm (flowering plants) family with over 700 genera and about 20,000 species. This tall tree reaches a height of up to 30 meters and is characterized by its smooth, yellow/green photosynthetic bark. The small bipinnate leaves feature paired straight stipules that are white and spinescent. The numerous bisexual flowers form round yellow spikes, each exhibiting regularity. The flowers contain exserted stamens and pistils with a superior ovary and extending style. The fruit is a non-sickle-shaped, flattish pod, tardily dehiscent, measuring up to 13cm in length. The tree has a dense spherical crown, with stems and branchlets often dark to black in color, fissured bark, and a greyish-pinkish slash that releases reddish low-quality gum. Young trees display thin, straight, light-gray spines in axillary pairs, typically ranging from 3 to 12 pairs long and 5 to 7.5 cm in length. Mature trees, on the other hand, usually lack thorns. The bipinnate leaves have 3-6 pairs of pinnulae and 10-30 pairs of leaflets, each leaflet measuring 4-5 mm long and exhibiting +/- tomentose characteristics. The rachis bears a gland at the bottom of the last pair of pinnulae. The flowers are arranged in globulous heads, 1.2-1.5 cm in diameter, of a bright golden-yellow color, either axillary or whorly on peduncles 2-3 cm long located at the end of the branches. The pods are grey, thick, softly tomentose, straight or slightly curved, measuring 5 to 15 cm long on a pedicel, and 0.5 to 1.2 cm wide [1]. In Kenya, the most dominant species are the Acacia Senegal, Acacia xanthophloea, Acacia nilotica, and the Acacia brevispica. The arid and semi-arid land (ASALs) of Africa is mostly degraded due to human interference, and climate change. They barely receive adequate rainfall annually (less than 400mm). Hence the Acacia tree species has been detrimental in ensuring both agroecosystem restoration, land reclamation through nitrogen fixation, and providing local communities with survival income [2]. Acacia trees play a vital role as a valuable natural resource for rural communities inhabiting arid regions worldwide. These trees serve multiple purposes, including providing livestock fodder, medicinal resources, timber, poles, charcoal, and fuel wood. Acacia pollination is by insects, and they later develop fruits after 4 to 6 months. Additionally, Acacia plants contribute to sustaining various life forms while offering pollen and nectar for honey production. In the Arid and Semi-arid Lands of Kenya, specific Acacia species serve as crucial livelihood sources. In Kitui County, Kenya, efforts have been made to explore wild silk production, but the primary significance of Acacia woodlands lies in the generation of high-quality honey. The honey, renowned for its exceptional quality, experiences strong demand both locally and nationally, making honey production a significant source of livelihood for the communities in the area [3]. Acacia xanthophloea bark tannin could be a potential new source of vegetable tannin agents [4]. In India, there are more than 1500 medicinal plants and half of these are being effectively used in curing different diseases. And the leaves of the Acacia nilotica have been tested to have high levels of total phenolic content, higher antioxidant activity, and higher protein content, compared to the pods and bark. Hence A. nilotica is being used in the control and cure of diabetismelitus as it contains anti-diabetic properties [5]. Understanding the genetic diversity and population structure of Acacia trees is essential for effective conservation and sustainable management. According to [2], few studies have been done on the genetic diversity of the acacia trees of Kenya. One study of A. Senegal using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and inter-specific simple sequence repeat (ISSR), resulted in a moderate level of diversity (H = 0.283) of the tree species. 1.2 Justification of the study Understanding the genetic diversity within A. xanthophloea populations are crucial for conservation efforts, particularly in the face of habitat loss and fragmentation. The use of new genetic technologies has still been rarely used for conservation efforts[6] Investigating the potential impacts of climate change on A. xanthophloea populations is essential for developing effective conservation and management strategies. DArTseq uses genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) technology to sequence and generate data from novel non-referenced genomes. This then generates single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) and DArTseq markers called silico DArTs. This technology has proved to be robust, and of high quality in genomics studies across various species and applications [7]. 1.3 Research Objectives The objective of this research is to; (1) assess the genetic diversity of Acacia trees in Kenya using DArTseq technology; (2) identify the population structure and relatedness of Acacia tree species across different regions in Kenya, and (3) provide valuable data for the formulation of effective conservation strategies and further research for Acacia trees in the region. And lastly, (4) generating the first Acacia genome assembly using open-source tools. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Historically placed within the large and diverse genus Acacia, A. xanthophloea has been subject to taxonomic revisions. Recent phylogenetic studies, based on both morphological and molecular data, have led to the reclassification of many Acacia species, including A.xanthophloea, into the genus Vachellia [8]. This reclassification reflects a more accurate understanding of evolutionary relationships within the family Mimosaceae (now Fabaceae, subfamily Mimosoideae). While the name Vachellia xanthophloea is now accepted scientifically, the older name Acacia xanthophloea is still frequently encountered in older literature and some local contexts. Acacia xanthophloea’s most striking feature is the smooth, yellowish-green to greenish-white bark, which peels in papery flakes, giving the tree a distinctive mottled appearance. This bark coloration is due to the presence of chlorophyll in the outer layers, enabling some degree of photosynthesis. Its smooth texture and tendency to peel are adaptations to the hot, dry environments it inhabits[1]. The leaves are … Read more

Microbial transformation of steroids, an old and novel drug opportunity strategy: a review

Samira Meza-Ruiz
Juan Manuel Sánchez-Yáñez

Introduction Steroids comprise a wide range of naturally common compoundsdistributed in all the animal and plant kingdoms, with huge physiologically active derivatives that play crucial roles in biological systems[1-4].Steroids are key components of cell membranes, for stability and growth in cellularand development. Steroidsare precursors to bile acids and steroid hormones[5-8].Steroids have base structure consisting of 17 carbon atoms in a tetracyclic ring system well known as cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene, now as gonane and estrane[3-6].Steroid products are found indiversityof living species, ecdysteroids in insects, phytosterols and diosgenin in plants, cholesterol and corticosteroids: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids as well as sex hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D; neurosteroids, in vertebrates, and in yeasts and fungi are ergosterol and ergosteroids as part of its membrane cells [7,8,10].Steroids and its diversity areessential in medical practice, functioning as scaffolds for synthesizing new pharmacologically potent compounds [5,11,13,14].Steroids control a cascade of physiological activities at target sites and play key roles in cancer research [5,8,11,12].The physiological activity of steroids is closely associated to their molecular structure, as well as, the number, spatial orientation, and reactivity of functional groups in the steroid nucleus, as well as the oxidation state of the rings [1,4,13,15-17].For example, the presence of an oxygenated group at C-11β is essential for anti-inflammatory activity, besides a hydroxyl group at C-17β determines androgenic properties [3,5,8,19,20]. Aromatization of steroids at the A-ring affects estrogenic activity, and corticosteroids feature a 3-keto-5-ene group or a pregnane side chain at C-17 [2,11,14,21,22].In steroids functional modifications involve simple, chemically defined reactions catalyzed by microbial enzymes [1,4,13,15].Genetic MIT ability provides these enzymes to facilitate the transformation reactions, enhancing the efficiency and specificity of steroidsby MIT[6,7,9,23,24].The chemical modification of steroids, which requires high temperatures, pH, expensive reagents, and protective groups for reactive centers, has been a chemical method to obtain valuable new or improved drugs [3,8,16,17,25]. However, MIT offers an alternative approach that enables the production of biologically active steroid derivatives with high regio- and stereoselectivity under mild, environmentally friendly conditions [17-19,27-31].The aim of this short review is to analyze the potential of microbial biotransformation of steroidal compounds of value in the pharmaceutical industry and its connection with other related industries. Microbial transformation of steroids There are currently around 300 known steroidal drugs, used for several aims: immunosuppression, anti-inflammation, and contraception. Steroid applications have expanded to treating cancers, osteoporosis, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)Infections or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromeor AIDS[3-5,7,8,32]. The therapeutic effects of certain steroid hormones are related to its interaction to intracellular receptors that regulate gene expression as transcription proprieties[13,20-22].Some steroids, as well as dehydroepiandrosterone, progesterone, pregnenolone, and itsproducts, like 17β-estradiol and allopregnanolone, are classified as neurosteroids due to steroidsactivity on the central nervous system[1,2,14].The MIT of exogenous steroid compounds is commonly by wide groups of bacteria and fungi, to enhancepharmacological activityand efficiency[27,30,33,34]. Several types of MIT reactions, as well as hydroxylation, dehydrogenation, side-chain degradation, ring A aromatization, reduction and esterification are used to achieve specific modifications [16-19, 22,23].MIT techniques diverse processes in culture media with microorganisms, free enzymes, biphasic systems, liposomes, microemulsions, methods altering cell wall permeability and the use of immobilized cells and enzymes [1,6,15,17,24].The spectrum of steroids that can be transformed by microbial cells is wide [4,7,9,18,25].Most advances in steroid happenedin 1950 at that time researchers had not clear idea about the pharmacological properties of cortisol and progesterone [8,14,16,30]. Researchers also discovered that genus fungi as well-knownspecies, could biotransform11α-hydroxylation, a critical reaction essential for synthesizing biologically active steroids [11,25,34,36,]; includingfungal transformation of Azorellane and Aqulinanetypes diterpenoids have unique tricyclic fused 5-, 6-, and 7-membered systems and a wide spectrum of biological properties: antimicrobial, antiprotozoal, spermicidal, gastroprotective [3,8,9,17,26].These discoveries marked the onset of a basic of development of steroids as a pharmaceutical, and the main point potential of microbial systems in the synthesis of valuable steroid compounds[10,11,13,32].Currently, the main objectives in steroid pharmaceutical research and development in target on identifying, and isolating microbial strains with unique activities or improving transformation capabilities [33-35, 37-39]. Genetic engineering and metabolic engineering of bacteria, fungi, and plants play a keyrole in these tasks[15,22,24,28,40]. Industrially, microbial hydroxylation activities, like are: C-11α, C-11β, C-15α, and C-16α, are performed with high yields and enantioselectivity [2,9,13,14, 22,27]. Since steroids have hydrophobicity, which caused steroids to be tolerant to biodegradation, the mechanisms of steroid metabolism by both aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms have been investigated [18,23,26,28-30].For effective MIT, precursor steroids are required, that are then converted into valuable intermediates and final products [7,11,17,25,31].MIT are: regiospecific and stereospecific, allowing the modification of compounds into suitable isomers through simple, chemically defined reactions catalyzed by microbial enzymes [1,3,15,32-33]. These enzymes act on compounds to design highly selective reactions, with easy techniques of isolation and purification of the new target compounds [3,6,17,19,22,27]. Besides, MITare is easy to use with necessary sterility conditions and allows for repeated working withthese enzymes [15,31,34]. SteroidMITare possible under several conditions of pressure and temperature, which is a viable alternative to chemical and ecological synthesis [2,23,24,40,41]. Although challenges such as productivity and chemical purity of steroids released, have non risk of contamination, microbial cells are systems can optimize and reduce costs by eliminating the need for isolating, purifying, and stabilizing pure enzymes [1,7,9,25]. Microbes naturally secrete all necessary cofactors and provide a stable environment for the enzymes, preventing protein structural changes and maintaining enzyme reactivity for many repeated processingto optimize steroid transformation[26,30,34,].Oxidation of steroid[6,12,35,].Common steroid precursors including cholesterol, steroidal alkaloids, steroidal sapogenins, and phytosterols, are readily available for MIT processes [16,18,19]. Types of steroids Cholesterols and corticosteroid Figure 1 illustrates the classification of steroids according to their biological functions or activities, including: bile acids, steroid hormones, cardioactive glycosides, aglycones, and steroid saponins[2,6,25]. Steroid hormones Estrogens and androgens play a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and regulating development [34,36,40]. The gut microbiota significantly influences systemic sex hormone levels by metabolizing these hormones into various derivatives [24,27,32,37]. Under normal physiological conditions, estrogens undergo rapid deactivation in the liver through processes such as glycosylation, sulfation, or methylation, followed by their elimination via urine and feces [30,31,37,38]. Gut microbes can alter this process by enzymatically reactivating estrogens, … Read more

Allelopathic Effects of Lepidium sativum Aqueous Extract on Germination and Seedling Growth of Phalaris minor: A Dose-Response Study

Rizwan Maqbool¹
Iqra Anwar²
Burhan Khalid^1&3
Muhammad Atiq Ashraf⁴
Talha Riaz⁵
Muhammad Ather Nadeem⁶

1. Introduction Allelopathy the chemical interaction between plants, is another process that has attracted widespread attention as a potential for sustainable agriculture[28]. It is defined as ‘an experiential process in which plants compete or cooperate by releasing allelochemicals, secondary metabolites into the environment that alter growth, survival or reproduction of neighboring plants [5, 26]. In general, allelopathy provides promising applications in weed management, crop protection, and also soil health improvement [2, 26]. Production and efficacy of allelochemicals are affected by different abiotic and biotic factors, including light, temperature, water availability, soil characteristics, and plant species [29]. Allelopathy provides an alternative strategy to reduce its use for environmental sustainability in agriculture [5, 26]. Allelochemicals are naturally released secondary metabolites (having a chemical composition different from primary metabolites) synthesized by organisms that possess ecological roles beyond primary metabolism [18, 20]. They are released into the surrounding environment through a variety of mechanisms and aid in plant defense, interference, and nutrient dynamics [20]. As a biochemical interaction between plants mediated by these chemicals, it can be stimulatory, inhibitory, or both [23]. Working in symbiosis with the crop, allelopathy in a crop production system can influence production from other crops, suppress plantings after a mono-crop, and likely lead to weed suppression as well [9]. Lepidium sativum, or garden cress, is a fast-germinating edible herb, [30].Lepidium sativum (cress) has significant allelopathic effects on surrounding plants. Its seed exudates have highly active allelochemicals and affect cell growth and organ morphology in receiver plants, especially by regulating cell expansion [19]. Lepidimoide, a major allelochemical of cress seed mucilage, was isolated which induced shoot expansion and root inhibition of some plant species (e.g.Lolium multiflorum, Maize and Tall Wheatgrass) [16]. Lepidium sativum itself is also affected by allelopathic effects from other plants. The germination and seedling growth of L. sativum were significantly inhibited by Lantana camara leaf extracts [15]. These results highlight the complex allelopathic interactions of L. sativum and its potential as a useful plant in agriculture. Phalaris minor is a yield-reducing competitive weed in wheat crops, and its control is greatly affected by the extensive use of herbicides in weed management [6, 32]. Weeds like P.minor generally suffer highly competitive exclusions through the globalization of trade and international travel because, without a doubt, through competition and predation, they lose their habitat [17]. Most weeds are still managed extensively using herbicides as a tool, especially since weeds like P. minor are already showing resistance to multiple herbicide classes including ALS inhibitors, ACCase inhibitors, and Photosystem II inhibitors [27]. Now that populations have already evolved to some level of resistance, allelopathic management using plant-derived extracts has shown a potential to control its growth [19]. Such wide-ranging approaches may help us to control such species but, at the same time, reduce future evolution to resistance. Phenolic compounds could play a remarkable role in seed germination and seedling growth, for instance, phenolic leaf-water extract of Plectranthusamboinicus and Ocimum basilicum could restrict the growth of common weeds Phalaris minor and Anagalis arvensis associated with Pisum sativum and significantly induce the growth and yield of the pea crop [13], however, aqueous extract of alfalfa showed allelopathic effects on Phalaris minor and gefarnate elicited substantially less germination of Lepidium sativum, but Glycyrrhiza glabra at lower concentration conferred relief for the germination of Lepidium sativum[11]. Moreover, the effect of phenolic herbicides on the germinability and morphological changes of the roots of Lepidium sativum was studied referring to this species as a good test species for toxicity assessment as it has a high germinability and good repeatability [4]. This highlights the diversity of plant-plant interactions[21], hence, the involvement of the phenolic compounds cannot be overlooked. However, phenolic effects on plant-plant interactions are dependent on the type of the compound, the concentration, and the target species. Therefore, further studies are needed to determine the mechanism and application of plant-derived phenolic compounds in plant-plant interactions. The term hormesis was first used by Southam and Ehrlich in 1943: Exposure to toxins in small amounts causes beneficial stimulation whereas the same toxins in large amounts cause toxic inhibition-a biphasic dose-response phenomenon [25]. Hormesis is an adaptive, stress-responsive mechanism in diverse organisms, in the presence of different chemical and environmental stressors [8]. Hormetic responses are directly linked to acclimation, and phenotypic plasticity is linked to the evolution of organisms, in adapting to various environmental changes [8]. Therefore, the current study was planned to describe the effect of phenolic compounds of Lepediumsativam on Phalaris minor. Although it is previously known that garden cress (Lepidium sativum) extracts are phytotoxic, few studies have been done on aqueous extracts, especially the impact on P. minor. We are exploring the potential to use Lepidium sativum (garden cress) as a natural alternative to the synthetic herbicide, controlling Phalaris minor through the application of its phytotoxic effects. The focus will be on exploring the phytotoxic effect of Lepidium sativum (garden cress aqueous extract) on the growth and germination of Phalaris minor and will be studied in this work. It is hypothesized that a higher concentration of L. sativum aqueous extract will induce a phytoxic effect on Phalaris minor.Current research was planned to explore the effect of Phenolic compounds of Lepediumsativam on the emergence and seedling growth of Phalaris minor as a bio-herbicide. 2. Material and Methods 2.1. Experimental site This study was conducted in the Weed Science Laboratory, Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture Faisalabad in the CRD management study. The three replications were used. In the lab, the garden cress allelopathic potential on the winter vegetable phalaris minor (Dumbi sittee) was assessed. For separating dry samples these samples were cut into two-centimeter pieces. After separating the chopped sample put in different soaking tanks for allelopathic water extract. It calculates in a 1:80 ratio. After taken out it runs through the cotton fabrics to take out the water from the given sample which is divided into different parts. As per the therapy the extracts dilute with 0, 0.25, 0.5, 10, 20, … Read more