Volume 4 Issue 1 2025 – Journal of Plant Biota

Does leaf turgor loss point (πtlp) differ between nitrogen fixers and non-nitrogen fixers? – A short research

Rincy Antony

Introduction: Nitrogen is a requisite element for plant growth and development as it is responsible for the production of amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. Additionally, it is an essential component in the synthesis of nucleic acid (DNA and RNA), essential for all living organisms (1). Research studies have shown that the efficient utilization of nitrogen by plants is responsible for an increased root biomass in plants along with a widespread network of roots for better water absorption (2). Although nitrogen makes up 78% of the atmosphere and 98% of the soil as organic nitrogen, plants cannot directly utilize it. Instead, nitrogen must be fixed either through fertilizer production or by microorganisms that form symbiotic relationships with plants (3). This study examines two plant groups—nitrogen fixers and non-nitrogen fixers—to investigate how nitrogen fixation influences turgor loss point (TLP) in a plant. The findings aim to reveal whether nitrogen fixation contributes to better plant survival under drought conditions. The nitrogen-fixing group of plants include Caesalpinia pulcherrima, a common ornamental and medicinal plant in India, belonging to the Caesalpiniaceae family (4,5) . Pongamia pinnata, a nitrogen-fixing tree from the Fabaceae family https://winrock.org/pongamia-pinnata-a-nitrogen-fixing-tree-for-oilseed (6). Albizia saman, belonging to the Leguminosae family, forms nitrogen fixing symbiosis with many strains of Rhizobium, and readily fixes nitrogen by forming root nodules (7). Albizia lebbeck, another species of genus Albizia which possesses nitrogen fixing properties (8) . Lastly, Saraca asoca, a nitrogen fixer that belongs to family Fabaceae and has long existed as a part of Indian traditional medicine, specifically to treat gynecological disorders (9) . The non-nitrogen fixing group of plants include Terminalia arjuna, commonly known as arjuna tree, which belongs to the Combretaceae family (10) . Terminalia bellirica, another plant species of the same family (11). Butea monosperma, a Fabaceae family member (12). Wrightia tinctoria, a non-nitrogen fixer, which belongs to the family Apocynaceae (13) . The last non-nitrogen fixer of this group is Azadirachta indica commonly known as neem which occupies a significant position in Indian traditional medicine (14) . The trait of leaf turgor loss point (πtlp)discussed in this study reflects a plant’s capacity to maintain turgor pressure during leaf dehydration, and is an important predictor of its response to drought (15). Traditionally, turgor loss point (TLP) was measured using an approach of pressure-volume curve also known as pressure-bomb technique developed by Scholander and colleagues (16) . It deals with theoretical analysis of equilibrium water relations of a twig’s cells taking into consideration the fact that each cell has unique shape, solute concentration, fluid content and mechanical strength given by its cell wall structure and attachment to neighboring cells (17) . Pressure-volume curves summarise leaf level responses to increasing water scarcity (18) . Recent studies have demonstrated that the measurement of TLP can be effectively achieved using vapor pressure osmometers and psychrometers (19,21). Studies suggest that plants with more negative TLP can better resist the dehydration of leaves, which in turn helps them to sustain physiological processes like stomatal conductance, photosynthesis and growth even under scarcity of water (22–28) . This research study mainly relies on the leaf TLP estimation of nitrogen fixers and non-nitrogen fixers for the estimation of better drought tolerance. This study quantified differences in leaf turgor loss points (πtlp)between two plant groups i.e., nitrogen fixers and non-nitrogen fixers to assess which plant group has a better tolerance under drought conditions. Materials and Methods: Sample Collection: The plants of both the groups (nitrogen fixers and non-nitrogen fixers) were collected from the National Centre for Biological Sciences (NCBS), Bengaluru, and the Gandhi Krishi Vigyana Kendra (GKVK), Bengaluru, which are specifically planted for research purposes. Sample preparation: The leaf samples for the estimation of TLP were collected one day before and stored in a beaker with proper labeling indicating the date of collection, name of the person who collected the sample, plant species name, and replica number (abbreviated as ‘R’). Five different replicates (R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5) for each plant species were sampled. The leaf samples were cut from the plants by snipping the leaf sheath and making a base cut underwater, taken in a beaker, and were kept submerged to avoid cavitation. Then, the beakers with the leaf samples were kept inside a zip lock bag with moist tissue to ensure that the air inside the bag remained humid. These samples were stored in a dark place and were allowed to rehydrate for about 20-24 hours and were only taken out during TLP estimation. Materials Required: Psychrometer, tissue roll/ paper towels, aluminum foil, cork borer or puncher, sharp-tipped tweezers/insect pin, liquid nitrogen, protective gloves, forceps/ tongs, pipette tip of any size, leaf samples (rehydrated for 20-24 hours). Osmotic Pressure (πosm) estimation using Psychrometer: On the day of measurement the psychrometer was allowed to equilibrate for 20-30 minutes after applying grease on the outer corners of the measurement chamber. The chamber was carefully closed and the lid was tightly secured with the help of masking tape. After equilibration the prepared leaf samples were taken out and gently wiped using tissue paper, to ensure no water content was present on the leaf surface at the time of measurement. After patting dry the leaf, it was gently rubbed with sandpaper to remove any trichomes present on the surface. Then the leaf was quickly punched using a paper puncture and was covered with aluminum foil within 30 seconds. The covered leaf disc was frozen in liquid nitrogen for about 2 minutes. After 2 minutes, the leaf disc was taken out, carefully opened and then poked 15-20 times with the help of an insect pin. The leaf disc was then carefully placed in the measuring chamber and the chamber was sealed again using masking tape. The first reading was taken after 2 minutes in the ICT software and the rest of the readings were taken with an interval of 10 minutes until stabilized readings were observed. After taking the readings the measuring chamber was carefully cleaned using distilled water and … Read more

Flavonoids in Malpighiaceae: A Comparative Study of Four Species from the Northern Minas Gerais Cerrado

Pedro Henrique Fonseca Veloso¹
Luccas Roberto Pereira Mendes²
Vanessa de Andrade Royo^1,2

INTRODUCTION Malpighiaceae is a botanical family currently comprising 77 genera and approximately 1,350 species distributed across tropical and subtropical regions of the world [1]. In Brazil, 46 genera are found, with a significant concentration of species diversity in the cerrado biome. Notable genera occurring in this biome include Byrsonima, Banisteriopsis, Diplopterys, Heteropterys, Malpighia, and Stigmaphyllon [2,3]. Certain species have been the focus of phytochemical investigations, such as Diplopterys pubipetala, which has been reported to contain flavonoids with antifungal activity, including high efficacy against yeasts of the genus Candida [4]. Studies conducted on Banisteriopsis species from the cerrado have revealed a chemical profile rich in flavonoids [5], suggesting that species and genera within this family may serve as sources of such metabolites and exhibit correlated chemical profiles. Beyond taxonomic classification, the occurrence of sympatric species—particularly congeners sharing the same habitat or ecosystem—raises questions regarding their metabolic richness. This is especially relevant in the context of recent taxonomic reclassifications, such as the division of the genus Banisteriopsis into three genera: Diplopterys, Bronwenia, and Banisteriopsis [6], with reported distributions across different geographic regions [7,8]. With regard to metabolite composition, both Banisteriopsis and Diplopterys have been studied for their phenolic content, including glycosylated flavonoids and aglycones [4,9,10]. In relation to other studies in species of the same family, metabolomic and chemical profiling assays have already been performed [11,12]. Therefore, the aim of this study is to evaluate the phytochemical characteristics of four Malpighiaceae species occurring in a cerrado fragment in northern Minas Gerais, Brazil, which share taxonomic traits, such as yellow flowers. MATERIALS AND METHODS Plant Material Leaves of Banisteriopsis gardneriana (Bg), Banisteriopsis cf. anisandra (Ba), Diplopterys lutea (Dl), and Diplopterys pubipetala (Dp) were collected in the district of Nova Esperança, municipality of Montes Claros, Minas Gerais, Brazil, in February 2025 (coordinates: 16W 33′ 41″, 43S 55′ 30″). Voucher specimens of each species were deposited at the Herbário Norte Mineiro – UFMG under the following voucher numbers: 6223 (Bg), 6225 (Ba), 6222 (Dl), and 6221 (Dp). The samples were registered in the National System for the Management of Genetic Heritage and Associated Traditional Knowledge (SisGen) under registration number A7ED1E1. Extract Preparation The leaves were washed with running water and dried in a forced-air oven (insert brand/model) at 40 °C ± 2 °C for five days. The dried material was ground using an IKA A11 analytical mill (IKA, Germany), and the resulting powder was stored in paper bags inside a freezer (Consul, Brazil) at a temperature between 0 and 4 °C. The hydroethanolic extract (70:30, v/v) was prepared using the exhaustive maceration method, at a ratio of 1 g of plant material to 10 mL of solvent, for seven days in the dark with occasional agitation. The material was filtered, and the solid plant residue was re-extracted with the same volume of solvent. After a second filtration, the combined extracts were concentrated under reduced pressure in a rotary evaporator (SP Labor, Brazil) at 40 °C ± 2 °C. The extraction yields for Bg, Ba, Dl, and Dp were 14.7% (1,470 mg), 16% (1,600 mg), 19.7% (1,970 mg), and 7.1% (710 mg), respectively. Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) TLC was performed on aluminum plates precoated with silica gel 60 (0.2 mm thickness) containing a fluorescent indicator F254 (Macherey-Nagel, Düren, Germany). The mobile phase specific for flavonoids consisted of ethyl acetate: glacial acetic acid: formic acid: and water (100:11:11:26, v/v/v/v). Detection was carried out using UV light at wavelengths of 254 nm and 365–395 nm, and chemically by spraying with 5% aluminum chloride (AlCl₃) solution. Rutin and quercetin were used as flavonoid standards. The alignment of solvent front distances for each sample was performed using the dimension tool in CorelDRAW (2021). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results obtained under UV light at 254 nm revealed compounds with corresponding retention factors (Rf) shared among some species. B. gardneriana (Bg), D. lutea (Dl), and B. cf. anisandra (Ba) exhibited shared Rf values of 0.70; Bg, D. pubipetala (Dp), and Ba showed Rf values of 0.81; and Bg and Ba shared an Rf of 0.89. Under UV light at 365–395 nm, Bg, Dl, Dp, and Ba shared Rf values of 0.60 and 0.64. After spraying with AlCl₃ and subsequent observation under UV 365–395 nm, Rf values of 0.75 and 0.64 were observed across all species. These Rf values may be closely associated with flavonoids common to the species, or to the family or genus level; given their taxonomic proximity, Diplopterys and Banisteriopsis may contain similar compounds. The retention factors are detailed in Table 1. Rf values corresponding to rutin were observed in three samples: B. gardneriana (Bg), B. cf. anisandra (Ba), and D. lutea (Dl), while quercetin was detected in Bg and Ba. A study on TLC of flavonoids [13], using the same mobile phase as in the present work, indicates typical flavonoid Rf regions as follows: 0.05–0.3 (flavonoid oligosides), 0.25 (flavonol triosides), 0.40 (rutin, quercetin-, kaempferol-, isorhamnetin-3-O-(2’’–6’’-di-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside), 0.45 (narcissin, isorhamnetin-rutinoside, iso-orientin, isovitexin, vitexin), 0.5 (6-hydroxykynurenic acid, kaempferol-, quercetin-3-O-(6’’-trans-p-coumaroyl-4’’-glucosyl)-rhamnoside), 0.6 (quercitrin), 0.75 (isoquercitrin, astragalin, dihydrokaempferol-7-O-glucoside), and front (flavonol aglycones, biflavonoids). These data corroborate the results obtained here, with well-defined zones corresponding to possible flavonoid groups. Regarding Diplopterys pubipetala, previous investigations reported the presence of orientin and vitexin with an Rf of 0.49 [4]. Geographic aspects may directly influence the ecological and ecophysiological interaction networks of the studied flora. The use of aluminum chloride favors the formation of fluorescent complexes in flavonoids, allowing visualization under UVA light, as occurred in the present study [14,15]. which indicates not only the presence but also the diversity of flavonoids in the samples analyzed. Other Rf values were observed sporadically, showing zones of higher and lower intensity, which may relate to the chemical identity of each analyzed species. Thus, the findings indicate not only chemotaxonomic proximity but also the individual chromatographic profile of each species and the richness of flavonoids present in the samples. This may suggest a chemical identity or even physiological and phenotypic plasticity of the species in response to their environmental conditions. CONCLUSION The results obtained in this study highlight the presence of flavonoids in the four species … Read more

Effects of ethanol extract of Ocimum sanctum leave on glycemic, lipidemic, and platelet aggregation status in neonatal streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetic rats

J. M. A. Hannan
Asma Ahammed
P. R. Flatt

Diabetes mellitus is recognized as a significant health concern worldwide and is a primary determinant of disability, morbidity, and mortality. Nevertheless, progress in knowledge and therapeutic approaches presents significant challenges in managing diabetes [1] [2]. Type 2 diabetes is a widespread and critical chronic condition arising from complex genetic-environment interactions, aggravated by additional risk factors such as obesity and a sedentary lifestyle [3]. There are several different classes of drugs, both oral and injectable, for the management of type 2 diabetes (T2DM) [4]. However, these nonprescription drugs are costly, not freely available to some populations, and often associated with significant drawbacks, let alone the inability to insure against complications of the disease [5]. The World Health Organization (WHO) has documented approximately 21,000 plant species globally that are frequently used for medicinal purposes. Of these, around 2,500 species are utilized in India, with nearly 150 species being commercially available on a large scale. India is recognized as the largest producer of medicinal herbs and is often referred to as the “botanical garden of the world” [6]. According to a WHO survey, traditional medicine systems account for approximately 80% of healthcare treatments in India, 85% in Myanmar (Burma), and 90% in Bangladesh [7]. Medicinal plants play a significant role in the traditional management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) across various countries. Many of these plants have demonstrated notable antidiabetic activity, often with minimal or no side effects. These plants are rich sources of bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, alkaloids, phenolics, and tannins, which are known to enhance pancreatic islet function, stimulate insulin secretion or improve insulin action, and reduce intestinal glucose absorption [8]. Due to these properties, herbal medicines have gained widespread popularity, especially in communities with limited access to conventional pharmaceuticals [5]. Such plant-based therapies are often preferred in economically disadvantaged populations due to their affordability, accessibility, and lower risk of drug-related adverse effects. Consequently, they are increasingly being used as alternatives or adjuncts to synthetic antidiabetic drugs to help manage and reduce the complications associated with diabetes [9]. Several studies have demonstrated the antihyperglycemic benefits of medicinal plants in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) [10]. One prominent example is Ocimum sanctum L. (syn. Ocimum tenuiflorum L.), commonly known as Holy Basil. This plant holds a distinguished place in traditional and folk medicine systems across Southeast Asia [11]. The leaves of O. sanctum have been widely used in Ayurvedic and Unani medicine for their therapeutic properties and have been traditionally applied in the treatment of various ailments, including diabetes, ulcers, and cancers. Additionally, the plant has been used to manage malaria, diarrhea, dysentery, skin diseases, arthritis, eye infections, insect bites, as well as bacterial and fungal infections [12]. Ocimum sanctum contains a complex profile of chemical constituents, including a variety of nutrients and bioactive compounds that contribute to its pharmacological properties [13]. However, the concentrations and efficacy of these bioactive ingredients can vary significantly depending on cultivation practices, harvesting time, processing techniques, and storage conditions [14]. Various parts of the plant—including leaves, stems, flowers, roots, seeds, and even the whole plant—have been employed in traditional medicine for their therapeutic potential. Ocimum sanctum leaves have been traditionally utilized in the management of diabetes mellitus for many years. A dietary supplement of fresh leaves at a dosage of 2 g/kg body weight administered to albino rabbits for 30 days resulted in a significant reduction in blood glucose levels [15]. Additionally, tulsi leaf powder has been reported to significantly decrease serum and tissue lipid profiles in both normal and diabetic rats [16]. Oral administration of the extract led to a marked reduction in blood glucose levels in glucose-fed hyperglycemic and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats [17]. Ethanolic extracts of O. sanctum also significantly reduced glycosylated hemoglobin and urea levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, while concurrently increasing levels of glycogen, hemoglobin, and total protein. These changes were accompanied by an increase in insulin levels and improved glucose tolerance [18]. It is believed that several bioactive compounds present in O. sanctum leaf extracts exert stimulatory effects on insulin secretion, thereby contributing to its antidiabetic properties [19]. Supporting this, research by Chandra et al. [20] demonstrated that oral treatment with O. sanctum extract at a dose of 500 mg/kg body weight significantly reduced blood glucose levels in insulin-deficient, streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. The extract also inhibited lipid peroxidation, reactivated key antioxidant enzymes, and helped restore glutathione (GSH) and antioxidant metal levels. Furthermore, it induced a notable increase in liver glycogen content in both normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rats. To further understand the multiple actions of Ocimum sanctum in type 2 diabetes, the present study aimed to investigate the chronic effects of an ethanol leaf extract on the glycemic, lipidemic, and platelet aggregation status in type 2 diabetic rats. Dried Ocimum sanctum leaves were procured from Ramkrishna Mission, Kolkata, India, and botanically authenticated, with voucher specimens deposited at the National Herbarium, Bangladesh. The leaves were first washed thoroughly with water, and petioles and stems were removed. The cleaned leaves were then oven-dried at 40°C, ground into fine powder (200 mesh) using a Cyclotec grinding machine, and stored in an airtight plastic container. A total of 2 kg of the powdered O. sanctum leaves was subjected to extraction with 80% ethanol (10 L) in a stainless steel extraction tank over four days at room temperature, with the solvent being replaced daily. The combined extracts were filtered and concentrated to dryness using a rotary evaporator. Residual solvent was removed using a membrane pump. The final extract (275 g) was freeze-dried using a Varian 801-model LY-3-TT freeze-dryer (USA) and stored in a reagent bottle at 4°C in a freezer until further use. Adult male Long-Evans rats (180–220 g body weight) were used in all experiments. The animals were housed under controlled environmental conditions at the animal facility of the Bangladesh Institute of Research and Rehabilitation in Diabetes, Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders (BIRDEM), Dhaka, Bangladesh. They were maintained on a 12-hour light/dark cycle at a temperature of 21 ± 2 °C. The standard … Read more

Physicochemical and Microbial Properties of eroded coastal soil in Eagle Island Rivers State, Nigeria

Gold Ejire
Aroloye O. Numbere
Peace K. Ohia

Tidal erosion has negative effect in many countries worldwide, including Nigeria. An extremely braided river erodes banks in its entire course by increasing its area and forming and destroying sand bars or chars, causing vast amounts of sediment. At present, tidal erosion is the major natural hazard for the riverside people, which has attracted attention from countries globally [1]. Tidal erosion causes multidimensional, ecological and environmental impacts Tidal erosion leads to the loss of crops, fertile land and other land-based resources. In addition, flooding displaces microbes and destroys the physico-chemical properties of the soil, which in turn is inimical to agricultural growth. [2]. The physicochemical properties and the structure and composition of the soil play key role in preventing tidal erosion. Soil chemistry influences the activities of microorganisms, which in turn play vital role in soil fertility and agricultural development in an agrarian society [3]. Similarly, the proliferation of microorganisms is dependent on the bulk density and soil porosity which is destroyed by erosion [4]. Increase in microbial activities helps in the sustenance of the soil and ensures an increase in productivity. Soil that is reinforced with rich humus soil and roots materials can withstand wind and water erosions [5]. Compaction negatively affect the function and structure of the soil and destroy the microbial population and prevent nutrient flow from the soil to roots of plants [6]. It is thus, important to determine the physico-chemical properties of the soil so as to know the impact of tidal erosion [7]. Tidal erosion has colossal impact on soil fertility and the microbial population [8], but not much have been studied in the Niger Delta region. The ecosystem comprises of the biotic system, which is made up of plants animals and microbes, but not much emphasis is given to the microbial community, which has made this work more necessary. The microbiota are the engine room of the coastal environment because of the increase in organic waste, which has necessitated the actions of decomposers. The trophic dynamic of the coastal community is regulated by the activities of decomposers which drives the energy within and outside the coastal areas. Stochastic changes in the coastal environment increases the unpredictability of natural events, which are worsened by adverse anthropogenic activities [9]. Microbes play role in gaseous exchange and nutrient cycle in terrestrial, aquatic and atmospheric environments [9]. The mangrove forest and its adjoining water bodies provide a conducive environment for microbial activity, which helps the circulation of nutrients [10] in a web of trophic activities. Since mangrove forest is a haven for multiple species decomposition activity is vital source of energy. Therefore, the washing away of the soil creates a dislocation that destabilizes ecosystem function. The soil physico-chemical property facilitates or impedes the biotic processes of the soil. Litter fall from mangrove trees provide the raw materials for decomposers to break down organic materials to fertilize the soil. Coastal erosion can also add or remove nutrients from the soil Tidal erosion, which is the wearing a way of coastal soil [12] is a problem in many coastal communities because of human-mediated activities of deforestation and sand removal for piling buildings constructed on wetlands. Locals dig up chikoko soil and use it for reinforcing the building they erect on the swamp. Scooping up soil fragments the soil and makes it vulnerable to tidal erosion, which further accretes the soil and wash away microbes and other soil-dwelling organism. In the same vein, the number of trees in mangroves forest has declined drastically over the years because of firewood production and urban renewal project for the construction of houses. Flooding from high volume of water from terrestrial area add to the erosional process by creating a wetland depleted of nutrients and microbes. The shape of the land also add to the severity of the flooding, sloppy areas leads to high acceleration of run-off water which washes the soil and deposits it in the river as sediments. The soft nature of the soil makes it wash faster compared to rocky soil. The Niger Delta soil is derived from sedimentary rock that is a soft alluvial thus, it erodes easily During the rainfall season erosion intensifies because the accumulation of upland water drains into the river [13] while during high tide the river water overflows and washes away the edges of the shore line. The topography of the study area Eagle Island, which has low elevation help to accelerate erosional processes. But before the removal of the forest the mangrove trees help to break and stop the erosion force and reduce the speed of the incoming water. While the tree roots hold the soil together to prevent both wind and water erosion from washing the soil particles. . The microbial community make up the decomposers, which in turn include fungi, protest, bacteria and earthworms. At the study site the fungal group include molds and mushrooms and they grow and break down the remains of dead plant and animal matter. On the other hand decomposers are microscopic decomposers that cause decay [14]. Bacteria and fungi break down dead organic matter in the soil. Ground dwelling organisms such as earthworms and fiddler crabs (Uca tenageri) bore holes and create burrows. Which help to aerate the soil and increases its fertility for plant growth [15], which has made the wetland to be a biodiversity hotspot [15]. But erosion destroys and wipes out the organisms and removes their ecosystem services. The breaking away of the soil hill by tidal force creates a sandy coastal plan whose physicochemistry is different from the usual muddy soil known as “chikoko”[16]. The nature of the soil and water content determine the extent of erosion. Lose soil will move faster and easily carried by tidal force. The river picks up and move particles and pebbles along the way, which causes abrasion of the river bottom [17] leading to sediment formation that smother benthic and terrestrial organisms. The destabilization of the pedology leads to the dysfunction in the productivity … Read more

Lawsonia inermis L. (Henna): A Comprehensive Review of Its Phytochemistry, Pharmacological Potential, Traditional Uses, and Commercial Applications

Chetan Joshi
Kavan Shukla
Kunal N. Odedra
B. A. Jadeja

1. Introduction Lawsonia inermis L., commonly referred to as henna, is a perennial shrub belonging to the family Lythraceae, which has a long history of use in traditional medicine and cultural rituals. The plant is particularly famous for yielding a reddish-orange colour from the compound lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone), which is found primarily in its leaves. Lawsone, as reported by Oda et al. (2018), is the major active compound that gives henna its colouring properties, which have contributed to its being a standard ingredient in cosmetic and ceremonial applications for centuries. [49] highlighted the broad geographical and cultural significance of L. inermis in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, where it finds application in rituals, healing, and as a plant dye. Apart from its colouring role, the plant contains a wide variety of phytochemicals—e.g., triterpenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic acids—which serve to promote a wide variety of biological activities. [9] has named these compounds as being responsible for their drug efficacy. Traditionally, L. inermis‘ therapeutic uses have been recognised by traditional medical systems worldwide. It was reported used by [35] in Ayurvedic medicine, and [20] used it in wound care, infection management, and metabolism disorder treatment via generation-to-generation transmission of ethnomedicinal information. These conventional claims have been provided with scientific justification by recent experimental research. Its antioxidant, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities were documented by [42], [50], and [2] further investigated its immunomodulatory and wound-healing activities, further establishing its significance in current phytotherapeutic research. Notwithstanding the growing amount of evidence, hurdles like extract standardisation, toxicity testing, and strict clinical trials are still present. The review herein covers an overall discussion on L. inermis, including its taxonomy, phytochemistry, ethnopharmacological history, therapeutic attributes, and prospects in commercialisation. This is aimed at bridging traditional knowledge with contemporary science to aid future innovation and sustainable use of this multipurpose plant. 2. Taxonomy and Botanical Description L. inermis L. is the single known species in the genus Lawsonia and is found in the family Lythraceae, which is placed in the order Myrtales. Its taxonomic status as a dicotyledonous angiosperm has been repeatedly upheld in every classification scheme that has been put forth by Bentham and Hooker, Engler and Prantl, Cronquist, and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG). [49] had characterised L. inermis as a much-branched, smooth shrub or small tree, usually 2 to 6 metres tall. The plant is readily identified by its opposite, simple leaves that range from elliptic to lance-shaped shapes, usually 1.5 to 5 centimetres long [4,6]. These leaves have entire margins and acute tips and are either sessile or attached by very short petioles. The plant bears fragrant flowers arranged in terminal panicles. Each flower consists of four petals, from white to pale pink, and has prominent stamens. [9] reports that the fruits are tiny, spherical capsules measuring 4–8 millimetres in diameter, containing numerous angular seeds. The bark is typically thin and greyish-brown, and it peels in fine layers as the plant grows [7,10]. One of the major botanical features of L. inermis is that it produces the orange-red pigment lawsone, which is deposited in the leaves [49]. observed that the pigment is significant from a historical point of view for its applications in traditional body adornment, natural hair dyeing, and colouring of fabrics. Table 1. Comparative taxonomic classification of L. inermis L. according to different botanical systems (Bentham & Hooker, Engler & Prantl, Cronquist, and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group). Figure I. This figure details the morphological features of L. inermis (henna). (a) presents the mature plant naturally occurring in its environment, with its bushy appearance- (b) provides a flowered branch, which emphasises the opposite phyllotaxy also seen here clearly in the inset. (c) offers a single flowered twig with minute, opposite leaves. (d) gives a close-up of the leaves, which are elliptic, entire, and oppositely arranged on the stem. (e) gives the inflorescence with many minute flowers aggregated in terminal cymes. (t) gives a close-up of one flower, displaying whitish-yellowish petals and bold stamens. (g) gives a single stamen with a bilobed anther, and (h) gives a mature green fruit, which is a tiny capsule. 3. Synonyms and Vernacular Names The botanical name Lawsonia was given in commemoration of Dr. Isaac Lawson, an 18th-century Scottish doctor. The species name inermis refers to the usually spineless twigs of the plant, which separate it from other thorny shrubs. Because of its wide geographic range and morphological variability, L. inermis has been placed under different synonyms in the past. These synonyms, documented in ancient botanical works, are listed in Table 2. L. inermis has a large number of vernacular names, which highlight its extensive cultural and medicinal use. It is “henna” or “Egyptian privet” in the English language [1]. It is named as “mehndi” in Urdu and Hindi, “mendi” in Gujarati and Marathi, and “maruthani” in Tamil. In the Arabic-speaking world, it is also known as “hina” or “henné.” There are similar names given to it in Persian and Swahili cultures. As identified by [1], an array of vernacular names is employed throughout Asia and Africa, each signifying the plant’s function in religious, cosmetic, and medicinal practices. Some examples include “inai” in Indonesian and Malay, “dan” in Burmese, “kaaw” in Lao, and “thian daeng” in Thai. Table 3 presents a list of these names to show the local vocabulary and cultural extent of L. inermis. 4. Cultivation and Distribution L. inermis, or henna, is a hardy plant species that withstands dryness and semi-desert conditions. The plant tends to grow up to a size of about six metres but can be kept in check at a shorter height by way of pruning, thereby maximising production of leaves as a harvest commodity, as has been observed by [50]. Ideal growth is achieved in sandy, drained soils under full sun and is particularly well-suited for tropical and subtropical environments. It is restricted in the colder areas by its frost sensitivity [50]. In the conventional farm environments, L. inermis is commonly planted on field borders or around residences and serves … Read more

Enriched compost with vivianite and pyroclastite powders: suitable fertilizer for better maize growth under the High Guinean Savanah climate of Cameroon

Mohamed Awal
Tchuenteu Tatchum Lucien
Simo kuate David
Megueni Clautilde

INTRODUCTION Zea mays L., also known as maize, is a food crop of the grass family. This cereal is one of the most important crops for human consumption, with an annual world production of approximately 2.80 billion tons. It is one of the world’s main cereal crops, and thus a mainstay of global food security [1]. Maize is rich in starch (around 70%), fat, protein, ash, mineral elements (potassium, magnesium, and phosphorus), and crude fiber [2]. Cameroon produced 2 million tons of maize in 2020, ranking 14th in Africa [3]. Despite the high level of maize production, requirements are constantly increasing because of the combined effects of rising human and animal consumption. Cameroon is both a maize importer and exporter, depending on the season. In seasonal abundance times (October to mid-January), the maize prices on local markets are low, and Cameroon exports maize to West African markets and even to Europe. When stocks run out from January to February onwards, prices on local markets generally rise until September. The price relationship with the international market then reverses, then Cameroon increases its maize imports [4]. Maize production in Africa increases, and in general, there is still great potential to increase productivity. However, its production is limited in the Adamawa-Cameroon region by many abiotic and biotic constraints that affect the yields. These include soil poverty. In this respect, maize growers in the Adamawa-Cameroon region generally use chemical fertilizers to solve the problem of soil deficiency in mineral elements, in order to optimize the yield of this cereal crop. However, several authors [5] [6] revealed that chemical fertilizers have an immediate positive effect on plant growth potential, but present serious environmental risks and do not maintain soil fertility. In this respect, it is urgent to consider management methods in local farming that can increase agricultural production while protecting the environment. Growing maize using compost combined with rock powders would contribute to improving the seed yield, cleaning up the environment, as well as adding value to our local material in agriculture while protecting the environment. Compost has physicochemical and biological properties that improve soil structure [7] [8]. Compost is an organic amendment that improves soil biodiversity through the contribution of microorganisms, combats mineral depletion, improves physicochemical qualities, and helps reduce the need for industrial nitrogen fertilizers [9]. The Adamawa region is rich in rock deposits, including vivianite in the Hangloa village and basaltic pyroclastites around Lac Tison. Vivianite is rich in phosphorus, then it can be used to improve soil fertility, consequently enhancing plant growth and yields [10]. Pyroclastites are characterized by their mineralogical composition rich in exchangeable bases (Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+) that can improve soil chemical properties [11]. This study aims to improve the maize productivity under the High Guinean Savannah climate of Adamawa-Cameroon without using chemical fertilizers. Specifically, it consists to: (1) evaluate growth substrates (soil, composts) for maize growth; (2) determinate determining the effects of the combination of composts and rock powders on maize production; (3) estimate the economic value of fertilizers. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study site The study was conducted during two cropping seasons (2023 and 2024) in the experimental field of the University of Ngaoundere (Cameroon) located at Darang locality. The area belongs to the agroecological zone II of Cameroon and is characterized by a Sudano-Guinean Savannah with six month’s dry season (November to April) and six months rainy season (May to October). The Adamawa Regional (Cameroon) Meteorological Service provided the meteorological data (precipitation and temperature) for both cropping years. Precipitation is higher in 2023 than in 2024, with an average of 197.11 mm per month and an annual total of 2365.30 mm in 2023, compared with 116.97 mm per month and an annual total of 1403.70 mm in 2024. May and June are the wettest months in 2023, with 415.30 mm and 493.10 mm of precipitation, respectively. In 2024, May and September are the wettest months, with 240.30 mm and 332.20 mm of precipitation, respectively. Average temperatures are higher in 2024 than in 2023, with an average of 24.25°C in 2024 versus 22.10°C in 2023. March and April are the hottest months in 2024, with average temperatures of 29°C and 28°C, respectively. In 2023, March and May are the hottest months, with mean temperatures of 24.20°C and 23.60°C, respectively (figure 1). The vegetation of the area is an herbaceous savannah dominated by Imperata cylindrica, Annona senegalensis, and Piliostigma thonningii. The following are the geographical parameters of the field: 07°23′ latitude North, 13°29′ longitude East, and 1125 m altitude. P: precipitation, T: temperature Material Maize seeds The seeds of the SHABA maize variety are used (Figure 2). These seeds were supplied by the Institute of Agricultural Research for Development of Wakwa (Ngaoundere, Cameroon). This variety was chosen for its great adaptability to the rainy season, early germination, and it has short reproduction cycle. Its development cycle varies between 100 and 120 days. These seeds are white, they are oval-shaped and medium-sized, with an average length of 10.50 mm and an average width of 8.5 mm, average weight is between 250 and 300 mg. Fertilizers The fertilizers (figure 3) used in the trials include: 03 different types of compost (compost derived from poultry litter, cow dung manure, and goat droppings manure), rock powders (pyroclastites and vivianite), and chemical fertilizers (NPK 20-10-10 and Urea 46 % N). Animal wastes (poultry litter, cow dung, and goat droppings) were collected from livestock buildings located near the campus of the University of Ngaoundere. The composting method, according to [5], was used. The composting process lasted 04 months. Vivianite was collected in the Hangloa locality located between 7o20′ and 7o30′ North latitude and 13o20′ and 13o25′ East longitude. The chemical composition of vivianite powder is the following: Fe2O3 (68.72%), P2O5 (9.17%), Al2O3 (7.72%), and SiO2 (9.67%) [10]. Thus, the total phosphorus content was estimated at about 671.50 mg/kg, while the assimilated phosphorus content was around 81.13 mg/kg. Phosphate contained in this mineral can be solubilized. Pyroclastites were collected around Lake Tyson … Read more

A new species of Passalora crotoniicola on Croton persimilis Mull. Arg. from forest flora of Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh

Anshu Deep Khalkho¹
Shweta Nistala²
Shilpa Kutar³
A.N. Rai⁴

INTRODUCTION Chhattisgarh is known for its prosperous plant and fungal diversity. Forest flora of Ambikapur is rich, little or few attention is drawn to fungal diversity of Ambikapur. During the survey of Kulhadi forest, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh massive fungal samples were collected on economic and medicinally important plant and one of them was Croton persimilis Mull. Arg (Euphorbiaceae) [6]. Regular survey of Kulhadi forest was conducted for fungal sample collection during every season. The number of fungi till date is likely 2.2 to 3.8 million fungal species, which is only 8% [4]. The plant is known for its medicinal value i.e. antioxidants and anticancer activity [7]. The genus Passalora was introduced by Fr. Summa vagetabilium Scandinaviae (1849) belongs to Mycosphaerellaceae family. Conidia of this genus are solitary, acropleurogenous, olivaceous brown, smooth, subcylindrical to very long ellipsoidal [3]. The present fungal species is never been previously disclosed, hence contributes to a novel fungal species. MATERIALS AND METHODS Survey was conducted in every alternate month of 2017 at Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India. Fungal infected leaves of Croton persimilis was collected in clean polythene bags with a tag with area, date of collection, local and botanical name, symptoms and location mentioned [1,5]. Infected leaves with lesion appearance were scraped on a clean slide mounted along with lactophenol cotton blue and covered with coverslip (Khalkho et al., 2020). Olympus CX2li trinocular microscope was used for morphological features identification. Samples were dried therefore preparative treatment was not given (Bhardwaj et al., 2020). SEM images were clicked under double beam FEI Nova nano SEM-450 at Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, M.P. The sample is reposed in Ajrekar Mycological herbarium- AMH, Pune, Maharashtra, India. The sample is also deposited in Departmental Herbarium of Botany, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, M.P. RESULT Taxonomy and Description Passalora crotoniicola A. D. Khalkho, S. Nistala and A.N. Rai sp. nov.Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4 Type: India, Chhattisgarh, Ambikapur, on living leaves of Croton persimilis Mull. Arg (Euphorbaceae), Kulhadi forest, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh. September 2017 leg. Anshu Deep Khalkho (Holotype-AMH- 10342, Isotype RAH-42) Etymology: Novel species name is derived from the host plant genus. Symptoms hypogenous, hypophyllous, irregular, scattered, all over the leaf surface, 0.5-4 x 0.5-3 cm, brown to black. Conidiophores macronematous, mononematous, solitary, unbranched, straight to flexuous, small, olivaceous brown, smooth, 1 septate, 8-11 µm x 2.50-4.00 µm. Conidia solitary, acropleurogenous, olivaceous brown, smooth, subcylindrical to very long ellipsoidal, hilum slightly thickened, 0-3 septate, 9.10 µm-19.04 x 3.29-3.85 µm. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS After surveying various mycological literature, new taxon is compared with the taxa reported on the same host family i.e Euphorbiaceae i.e Passalora jatrophigena Braun, U., & Freire, F. O. (2004) (infecting Jatropha sp.) and Passalora cnidoscolifolii (Bat., Peres & O.A. Drumm.) U. Braun & F. Freire (2004) (infecting Cnidoscolus sp.). Some more similar species of Passalora are P. golaghati [9] and P. sicerariae [8]. It was observed that the novel fungal species is drastically different by symptomatology with larger infection spots, short and less wider conidiophores by having only 1 septa and small conidia with fewer septa to defend against the comparing fungal species. Therefore, the present species Passalora crotoniicola is justified to place as new taxon of species rank. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank forest department of Ambikapur, C.G., the Curator (AMH), Agharkar Research Institute (ARI), Pune, Maharashtra, India for giving accession number of fungal sample and deposition. Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya for access to Nova Nano SEM 450. Authors are also thankful to the Head, Department of Botany, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar M.P., for providing laboratory facilities. This work was financially supported by Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Govt of India. REFERENCES [1]. Bhardwaj, S., Khalkho, A. D., Dubey, A. & Rai, A. N. (2020). A new host record for Dictyoarthrinium sacchari (J.A. Stev.) Damon. Kavaka, 54, 100-102. [2]. Braun, U., & Freire, F. O. (2004). Some cercosporoid hyphomycetes from Brazil- III. Cryptogamie Mycologie, 25, 221-244. [3]. Ellis, M.B. (1971). Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes, CMI, Kew England. [4]. Hawksworth, D. L., & Lücking, R. (2017). Fungal diversity revisited: 2.2 to 3.8 million species. Microbiology spectrum, 5(4), 10-1128. [5].Khalkho, A. D., Rai, A. N., & Bhardwaj, S. (2021). Capnodium variegatum-a new foliicolous species of sooty mould infecting Bauhinia variegata L. from Chhattisgarh, India. [6]. Khalkho, A. D., & Rai, A. N. (2021). CHECKLIST OF FOLIICOLOUS FUNGAL DIVERSITY: AMBIKAPUR, CHHATTISGARH. [7]. Rattanapunya, S., Sumsakul, W., Bunsongthae, A., & Jaitia, S. (2021). In Vitro Antioxidants and Anticancer activity of Crude Extract Isolates from Euphorbiaceae in Northern Thailand:(TJPS-2020-0282. R2). Thai Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences (TJPS), 45(5). [8]. Singh, A., Bhartiya, H. D., & Singh, P. N. (2022). Passalora sicerariae sp. nov. on Lagenaria siceraria from India. Mycotaxon, 137(2), 245-249.[9]. Singh, G., Yadav, S., Singh, R., & Kumar, S. (2022). Passalora golaghati comb. nov. from India.Singh, G., Yadav, S., Singh, R., & Kumar, S. (2022). Passalora golaghati comb. nov. from India.

Farmers’ Perception of Disease Management at Irasa Farm Cluster, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria

Moses Jimoh Falade ¹
Bolaji Toyin Alabi²

Introduction Nigeria’s agricultural sector contributed significantly to its GDP in the 1960s, accounting for 64% [2]. However, its contribution has declined to around 25% in recent years (Savary et. al, 2012. Despite this decline, agriculture remains vital to Nigeria’s economy, providing food, raw materials, and foreign exchange, with 70% of the population relying on it for their livelihood [11; 5]. Vegetables are a valuable crop, offering nutritional benefits and income-generating potential, particularly in supplementing carbohydrate-based diets [4]. Nevertheless, vegetable production faces numerous challenges, including high input costs, transportation issues, market accessibility, and pest and disease infestations [12]. Insect pest attacks, in particular, significantly impact vegetable quality and yield, making them a major barrier to increased production. To address these challenges and increase agricultural production, farmers have turned to agrochemicals, using an estimated 125,000-130,000 metric tons of pesticides annually [3]. The global disparity between food demand and production continues to grow, exacerbated by the increasing global population, with sub-Saharan Africa being particularly affected [6; 10]. This widening gap has severe consequences, including food insecurity, malnutrition, famine, hunger, high food costs, and social instability. Several factors contribute to this disparity, such as environmental stresses, poor farming practices, limited arable land, and inadequate financing [9]. Additionally, disease and environmental factors are significant contributors to food waste and losses, with a substantial portion of the already insufficient food produced by farmers being lost due to disease, which can also lead to reduced crop yields or complete crop failure [9]. Despite the challenges posed by pests, diseases, and weeds, farmers employ diverse strategies to mitigate these issues in their agricultural practices. Gaining insight into farmers’ perceptions and approaches is essential for enhancing agricultural productivity and sustainability [1]. This report delves into the pest control methods utilized by farmers, with a focus on biological and organic controls, integrated pest management (IPM) techniques, chemical treatments, and alternative nonchemical methods. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Study Site: This research was conducted at the Irasa Farm Cluster in Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria, located within the tropics. The area spans between 40⁰51′ to 50⁰451′ East longitude and 70⁰151′ to 80⁰51′ North latitude. Ekiti State, where the research took place, covers approximately 6,353 square kilometers and comprises 16 local government areas, with a population of around 3,270,798, according to the 2016 census. The state is bordered by Kwara and Kogi states to the north, Osun State to the west, and Ondo State to the south and east. Ekiti State experiences a tropical climate with two distinct seasons: a rainy season from April to October and a dry season from November to March. The temperature ranges from 21⁰ to 28⁰, with high humidity. The southern part of the state is characterized by tropical forests, where agricultural activities dominate, with arable crop production being the primary source of livelihood. Livestock production and artisanship are secondary occupations among the farmers. 2.2 Sampling Technique and Sampling Size A multi-stage sampling approach was employed to select respondents for this study, targeting cassava, yam, and tomato farmers within the Irasa Farm Cluster. The study population comprised farmers from the local farm community, where approximately 95% of the adult population is actively engaged in cultivating crops such as cassava, yam, tomatoes, and vegetables. A random selection process was used to choose participants from this community. 2.3 Data Collection and Analysis Data collection was facilitated through the use of meticulously designed questionnaires and interview schedules, aimed at gauging farmers’ perceptions and knowledge regarding disease management within the farm community. Respondents were chosen through a random selection process. The collected data underwent transformation and analysis using the IRRI STAR (2014) statistical tool. Results and Discussion 3.1: Distribution of the respondents according to their socio-economic characteristics The socio-economic variables of farmers at Irasa Farm Cluster, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria, provide valuable insights into the demographic characteristics of the farming community. A significant majority of the farmers are male (82.5%), indicating a dominant role of men in farming activities in the region. This high percentage of male farmers may be attributed to cultural and traditional factors, where men are often expected to take on more physically demanding roles such as farming. The age distribution of the farmers reveals a relatively youthful population, with 25% of farmers falling within the 16-25 years age range. This suggests that a significant proportion of farmers are young and potentially more open to adopting new technologies and practices. However, the majority of farmers (42.5%) fall within the 36-56 years age range, indicating a significant level of experience and expertise among the farming community. The educational background of the farmers reveals a concerning lack of formal education, with 52.5% of farmers having no formal education. This may limit their access to information and knowledge on modern farming practices, including disease management. However, 27.5% and 17.5% of farmers have primary and secondary education, respectively, which may provide a foundation for understanding and adopting new practices. The years of farming experience among the farmers reveal a significant level of expertise, with 45% of farmers having 11-20 years of experience. This suggests that many farmers have developed valuable knowledge and skills through their years of experience. However, 20% of farmers have less than 5 years of experience, which may indicate a need for targeted extension services and training to support these newer farmers. Finally, the type of cropping system used by the farmers reveals a universal adoption of mixed cropping (100%). This suggests that farmers in the region recognize the benefits of diversifying their crops, which can help to reduce disease pressure and promote more sustainable farming practices. However, it also highlights the need for targeted support and guidance on managing mixed cropping systems to maximize their benefits. 3.2 Distribution of the farmers according to their perception towards Plant Disease in Irasa Farm Cluster The results of the survey on farmers’ perception towards plant disease in Irasa Farm Cluster reveal a profound impact of disease on farmers’ livelihoods, with 97.5% of respondents having experienced disease on their farms, likely due to the region’s tropical … Read more

Anatomical studies (Stem & Ovary) of Genus Datura L. (Solanaceae) in Karnataka, India

Rashmi Gulaguli
Shreyas Betageri
Vanaja G. Patgar
K. Kotresha

INTRODUCTION Diversity of Datura L. across South West and Central U.S.A. to Maxico is 14 species [7]. Latin Solanum “the nightshade plant” derived the family name as ‘Solanaceae’. The genus Datura belonging to the Solanaceae family comprises several species including some medicinal properties [10]. Cytological and tissue culture studies [13] have reported arrangement and variations among four distinct taxa in Datura and two distinct taxa in Withania. Anatomy and Morphology of stem in some speceis of Solanaceae [6] family has reported the variations in Solanum tuberosum L., Capsicum annum L. and Datura stramonium L. [12]. The growth of Datura inoxia was huge in normal water, but the average roots were long under wastewater. Datura inoxia demonstrated have strong adaptive potential under wastewater. Stem and leaf anatomy of nine Solanum species of Egypt to find useful taxonomic characters and indicate close interrelationships among the collected species include: the diversity of epidermis, cortex, vascular bundle and pith thickness of stem is varied for epidermis, mesophyll for leaves lamina and midrib. Ultimate moto of work is to solve taxonomic dispute among Solanum genus[11]. Microscopical investigation of three Datura species have recorded the variations among the stem sections between 3 taxa in Datura [5]. Morphological studies of flowering plants (Solanaceae) have reported variations in morphological aspects among 20 species belonging to Family Solanaceae which is toxic (Potent-alkaloids) in some conditions used as staple food. The present observation shows that majority of Solanaceae species have same morphological features of family [4]. MATERIAL METHODS Study area: The research was conducted across various districts. The plants from different localities of Karnataka were collected in different seasons from districts like Gadag, Dharwad, Belagavi, Hassan and Chikkamagaluru covering different agro-climatic zones to capture the diversity of Datura species. Collection & identification: Collection of species was carried out in different seasons (Summer, winter, and rainy), collected in triplet form for dissection, identification and anatomical studies. Identification using different district floras [(2); (3); (9); (1); (8)]. Anatomical studies: Collected stem samples were stored in water for one day, washed in 100 % alcohol, and sectioned and stained with safranin stain and observed under binocular microscope, recorded the characters with photographs. Ovary anatomy was selected small ovary which is slightly maturing, sectioned and observed under microscope with safranin stain. RESULTS During the survey five Datura species with two verities from different districts of Karnataka (Figure 1). The variations observed and studied among all the Datura species are described individually below. STEM ANATOMY OF GENUS DATURA L. IN KARNATAKA: I) Datura discolor Bernh. (Figure 2) The stem is circular. The transverse section of Datura discolor shows the presence of cuticle layer above the epidermis. The epidermis is 4-5 layered, cells varying from rectangular to cylindrical; these are tightly packed which bears trichomes arising from the epidermal layer. Cambium is about 4 layered having hexagonal cells. Endodermis and pericycle is single layered. It also bears Vascular bundles i.e., phloem and xylem. The Meta xylem, xylem and Proto xylem are arranged linearly towards the pith. Pith is hollow, where Parenchyma having thin cell walls and few chlorenchyma cells containing chloroplast are present. II) Datura ferox L. (Figure 2) The stem is circular. Shows multilayered cuticle layered above the epidermis which is about 7-8 layers from which trichomes arose. Hypodermis made up cuboidal shaped cells and are larger than epidermis and is one layered. Cortex is with irregular shaped (circular, ovate, elongate) cells and are collenchymatous. Endodermis 1or 2 layered with rectangular or barrel shaped thin wall. Pericycle 1-2 layered. Pholem is with two or many layered cells, Xylem are 5 and more layers which are continuous. Large pith is present at the center , which is composed of large parenchymatous and chlorenchymatous cells between them having oval structure. III) Datura innoxia Mill. (Figure 3) The stem is circular. Shows epidermis which is the outermost single layer, above which 2 layered cuticle coverings is present. Epidermis bears many trichomes having glandular and multicellular trichomes. Outer cortex is made up of collenchymarous cells, 2-3 layered cells similar to endodermis cells. Cortex is thin walled bearing 4-6 layers, and cells are circular oblong. Phloem are rectangular cells, 4- 6 layered. Xylem strands grows up to 15-20 layers. Below the xylem 4-5 layers of thin walled parenchymatous cells are present, it is compactly arranged, tangentially elongated or polygonal. Pith is large at the center; it is made of large parenchymatous cells along with chlorenchymatous cells and bearing hollow structure at the centre. IV) Datura metel L. (single white corolla) (Figure 3) The stem is circular. Shows two layered epidermis, above which a thin cuticle layer is observed. Cortex is made up of 4-5 layers having collenchymatous cells that are cuboidal in shape. Pericycle is about 2-3 layers. Phloem is about 3-4 layers that are rectangular in shape. Xylem cells are arranged radially beneath the phloem. Pith is large having paranchymatous and chlorenchymatous cells, ranging from hexagonal to circular in shape. V) Datura metel L. (single purple corolla) (Figure 4) The stem is circular. Epidermis is one layered made up of cuboidal shaped cells. Above which thick cuticle layer covering is observed. Hypodermal layer is larger, rectangular shape than the epidermal cells. Cortex, is made up of 8-10 layers having collenchymatous cells that are rectangular, oval, circular or irregular in shape. Endodermis is not prominent. Pericycle is 3-4 layered. Phloem is composed of 4-7 layers of rectangular, tangentially elongated cells. Radially arranged xylem cells are found below the phloem. Xylem patches penetrating into the pith region. Pith is large and composed of thin walled paranchymatous cells, circular with presence of chlorenchymatous cells in between. VI) Datura metel L. (Tri-petal purple) (Figure 4) The stem is circular. Thick cuticle covering, below which about 8-9 layers of epidermis is observed. Hypodermis comprises of Parenchyma and collenchymatous cells ranging from circular to hexagonal shapes of various size. Cortex comprises of 10-12 layers. Pericycle is about 4-5 layers. Phloem is composed of 5-6 layers. Xylem cells found penetrating into the pith … Read more

Effect of GA₃ and NAA on Growth and Yield of Cabbage

S. M. Abdul Gani¹
Md. Moinul Haque¹
Ronzon Chandra Das²
Rafio Rahmatullah ³
Md. Kayes Mahmud⁴
Md. Khayrul Islam Bashar⁴
Mirza Golam Morshed⁵
Md Toufiqul Islam⁵
khalid syfullah⁶

Introduction Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.), commonly referred to as “Badhacopy” in Bangladesh, belongs to the Brassicaceae family and is an important winter vegetable extensively grown across the country .It provides a wealth of essential nutrients like vitamins A, B, and C, along with minerals and beneficial bioactive compounds such as sinigrin glucoside, which enhance both its unique flavor and health-promoting properties. Additionally, cabbage is utilized in various culinary forms, including curries, salads, and pickles. The edible portion consists of tightly packed leaves forming the head, which is a vital economic trait. From a nutritional standpoint, every 100 grams of the edible green part of cabbage comprises about 92% water and supplies 24 kilocalories of energy, along with 1.5 grams of protein, 4.8 grams of carbohydrates, 40 milligrams of calcium, 0.6 milligrams of iron, 600 IU of carotene, 0.05 milligrams of riboflavin, 0.3 milligrams of niacin, and 60 milligrams of vitamin C. [1]. Cabbage also contains sulforaphane, a potent anti-carcinogenic compound, and increased consumption of plant-based foods such as cabbage has been linked to reduced risks of diabetes, obesity, heart disease, and overall mortality. Although cabbage is an important crop in Bangladesh, its average yield is relatively low at 16.06 tons per hectare, falling well behind countries like Japan (40.03 t/ha), South Korea (59.07 t/ha), and even neighboring India (17.88 t/ha). [2]. This yield gap can be attributed primarily to suboptimal management practices and limited adoption of yield-enhancing technologies. Utilizing plant growth regulators (PGRs) is one promising approach to boosting cabbage production, as they significantly influence plant growth, development, and yield improvement. Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are organic substances that can alter various physiological functions in plants, even when applied in minimal amounts. Auxins like naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) mainly promote cell elongation, whereas gibberellins (GA₃) encourage both cell division and elongation. [3]. External application of these growth regulators has been extensively researched across different crops, showing notable enhancements in plant growth and yield. [4]. Research indicates that GA₃ boosts plant height, leaf expansion, and head development, whereas NAA supports root growth and increases head weight. [5,6]. Research indicates that cabbage shows a positive response to foliar applications of GA₃ and NAA, resulting in increased leaf count and enhanced marketable yield. [7,8]. Drobek M. [9] discovered that applying GA₃ at 60 ppm and NAA at 80 ppm produced the highest yield of cabbage heads.. Similarly, PAINKRA, B. [8] reported the highest yield when GA₃ was applied at 50 ppm, with NAA at 50 ppm closely following. Other studies suggest that GA₃ at 100 ppm yields the best results for cabbage production [10,11], while maximum head yield was also reported with NAA at 50 ppm. Although promising results have been observed in other regions, there is a lack of research on the effectiveness of these growth regulators in Bangladesh, emphasizing the need for further studies. This study assessed the effects of GA₃ and NAA on cabbage and identified their optimal concentrations for maximizing growth and yield. Materials and Methods Location and Study Period The study was conducted at the Horticulture Farm of Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) in Joydebpur, Gazipur, from October 2016 to March 2017. It aimed to evaluate the effects of gibberellic acid (GA₃) and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) on the growth and yield of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata). Soil and Climatic Conditions The experimental field had sandy clay loam soil with a pH of approximately 6.0, belonging to the Chita soil series (AEZ-28). The climate was subtropical, with heavy rainfall between May and September, followed by a dry period for the rest of the year. Planting Material and Treatments The test variety used was ‘Atlas-70’ cabbage, sourced from Siddik Bazaar, Gulistan, Dhaka. The experiment included eight treatments: Study Design and Field Layout The experiment used a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. It involved 24 plots (1.8 m × 2 m) with 50 cm × 60 cm plant spacing. Blocks were separated by 0.75 m, and plots within blocks had 0.5 m spacing. Land Preparation and Fertilizer Application The field was plowed, exposed to sunlight for a week, and leveled. Cinocarb 3G insecticide (4 kg/ha) was applied to control soil-borne pests. Fertilizers were applied following Islam et al. (2004) recommendations: Growth Regulator Preparation and Treatment Application A 1000 ppm GA₃ stock solution was prepared, diluted to obtain 50 ppm, 75 ppm, and 100 ppm solutions, and applied using a mini hand sprayer at 30 and 45 days after transplanting. A similar method was followed for NAA solutions. Seedling Raising and Transplanting Cabbage seedlings were raised at Olericulture Division, HRC, BARI, Gazipur, on 3 m × 1 m seedbeds. Decomposed cow dung (5 t/ha), 200 g TSP, and 150 g MoP were applied. Seeds were sown on November 26, 2016, and transplanted at 27 days old (December 22, 2017). Intercultural Operations Harvesting and Data Collection Cabbage was harvested between February 28 and March 8, 2017, based on head compactness. Data were collected from five randomly selected plants per plot, while total yield was measured on a per-plot basis. Recorded Parameters Data Processing and Analysis Data were analyzed using ANOVA in Statistics 10.0, and mean comparisons were conducted using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at a 5% significance level. Result and Discussion Plant height The application of GA₃ and NAA has been shown ( Fig 1) to significantly influence plant height in cabbage cultivation. In a study evaluating various concentrations of these plant growth regulators, the tallest plants were observed by applying of 75 ppm GA₃, reaching a height of 23.00 cm. This was statistically comparable to treatments with 50 ppm GA₃, 100 ppm GA₃, and 60 ppm NAA. In contrast, the shortest plants, measuring 17.25 cm, were recorded in the control group, which did not receive any growth regulator. The increase in plant height resulting from GA₃ and NAA treatments can be attributed to their roles in modulating physiological processes such as cell elongation and division, thereby promoting enhanced vegetative growth. GA₃, in particular, … Read more