Volume 5 Issue 1 2026 – Journal of Plant Biota

Simultaneous Hepatic and Renal Biochemical Toxicity Following Chronic Petroleum Hydrocarbon Exposure in Chickens

Eruotor O. Harrison¹
Chinwebudu M. Melford²

INTRODUCTION Petroleum hydrocarbons are among the most important environmental contaminants generated through crude oil exploration, transportation, refining, industrial discharge, and accidental spills [1]. In oil-producing communities, continuous contamination of soil and water creates long-term exposure risks for humans and animals [2]. Organisms inhabiting polluted environments may absorb hydrocarbons through ingestion of contaminated feed and water, inhalation of volatile compounds, or dermal exposure [3]. Chronic exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons has been linked with toxic effects involving several organ systems, especially the liver and kidneys because of their critical functions in metabolism, detoxification, and excretion of xenobiotics [4]. The liver is highly susceptible to petroleum hydrocarbon toxicity because it is the principal organ responsible for the metabolism of foreign compounds [5]. Petroleum hydrocarbons include aliphatic compounds, aromatic hydrocarbons, cycloalkanes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, many of which are capable of generating reactive intermediates during metabolism [6]. These metabolites may induce oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and membrane instability within hepatocytes, leading to hepatocellular injury and altered liver function [7]. Such hepatic damage is commonly reflected by elevated serum aminotransferases and alkaline phosphatase activities, together with disturbances in albumin synthesis, total protein concentration, and bilirubin metabolism [8]. The kidneys are also vulnerable to hydrocarbon toxicity because they participate in the elimination of water-soluble metabolites derived from petroleum hydrocarbons [9]. Exposure to these compounds may impair glomerular filtration and tubular function, resulting in elevated serum urea and creatinine concentrations as well as electrolyte imbalance [10]. Persistent renal injury may further contribute to systemic metabolic disturbances and altered physiological homeostasis [11]. Interactions between hepatic and renal dysfunction are increasingly recognized in toxicological and clinical studies. Damage to the liver may increase circulating toxic metabolites capable of aggravating renal injury, while impaired renal clearance may prolong systemic retention of hepatotoxic compounds [12,13]. Despite this relationship, many studies continue to assess hepatic and renal toxicity separately, thereby limiting understanding of the overall systemic effects of petroleum hydrocarbon exposure. Chickens are considered valuable sentinel organisms in environmental toxicology because they are continuously exposed to environmental contaminants through soil, water, and feed interactions [14]. In addition, chickens are economically important food animals, making environmental toxicant exposure a public health concern [15]. Although previous studies have investigated petroleum hydrocarbon toxicity in poultry, information regarding simultaneous hepatic and renal biochemical responses during chronic exposure remains limited. Therefore, this study was designed to evaluate concurrent hepatic and renal biochemical toxicity in chickens chronically exposed to petroleum hydrocarbon contamination. The study assessed liver enzymes, bilirubin fractions, serum proteins, renal biomarkers, and electrolyte profiles, while also examining the influence of exposure duration on toxicological outcomes. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study design This study adopted a comparative experimental design to investigate hepatic and renal biochemical toxicity in chickens exposed to a petroleum hydrocarbon–contaminated environment. Biochemical findings obtained from exposed chickens were compared with those of unexposed control birds. The study also evaluated the influence of exposure duration on the severity of hepatorenal toxicity. Experimental animals and grouping A total of eighteen chickens were used for the study. Twelve chickens were obtained from an environment characterized by chronic petroleum hydrocarbon contamination associated with prolonged hydrocarbon-related activities. Six chickens obtained from a non-contaminated environment served as controls. The exposed chickens were grouped according to exposure duration. Six chickens were evaluated after 6 months of exposure, while another six chickens were evaluated after 12 months of exposure. Control birds were similarly categorized according to age and duration. All chickens were maintained under similar feeding and husbandry conditions throughout the study period to minimize environmental and nutritional variation. Blood sample collection and serum preparation Blood samples were collected aseptically by venipuncture into clean dry tubes without anticoagulant. The samples were allowed to clot at room temperature and were centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes to separate serum. Serum samples were transferred into properly labeled containers and stored at −20 °C pending biochemical analysis. All analyses were completed within 72 hours of sample collection. Biochemical analysis Serum AST and ALT activities were determined using the Reitman–Frankel method, while ALP activity was analyzed using the p-nitrophenyl phosphate kinetic method. Serum albumin concentration was measured using the bromocresol green method, and total protein was determined using the Biuret technique. Total and conjugated bilirubin concentrations were estimated using the diazo reaction method. Renal function was assessed by measuring serum urea and creatinine concentrations using the urease–Berthelot and Jaffe alkaline picrate methods, respectively. Electrolyte analysis included sodium and potassium determination by flame photometry, while chloride and bicarbonate concentrations were measured using standard colorimetric procedures. Commercially available diagnostic kits were used for all biochemical analyses according to the manufacturers’ instructions. Absorbance readings were obtained using a visible spectrophotometer (Model S23A, HELMREASINN, China). To ensure analytical reliability, all assays were performed in duplicate, and internal quality control sera were included during each analytical run. Statistical analysis Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 25.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Comparisons between exposed and control groups were performed using independent-sample t-tests, while one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s post hoc test was used to assess differences associated with exposure duration. Statistical significance was accepted at p < 0.05. Ethical considerations All experimental procedures involving animals were carried out in accordance with the National Research Council Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (8th edition). Measures were implemented to minimize animal discomfort during handling and sample collection. RESULTS Hepatic biochemical alterations The hepatic biochemical parameters of exposed and control chickens are presented in Table 1. Chickens exposed to petroleum hydrocarbon contamination showed significant hepatic dysfunction when compared with controls (p < 0.05) . Serum AST, ALT, and ALP activities were significantly elevated in exposed birds, findings consistent with previous reports of petroleum hydrocarbon–induced hepatocellular injury and membrane destabilization in exposed animals and poultry species [16, 17]. In contrast, serum albumin and total protein concentrations were significantly lower in exposed chickens, suggesting impaired hepatic synthetic function under chronic toxic stress. Total and conjugated bilirubin concentrations … Read more

Evaluation of Acetone, Methanol, and Hexane Extracts from Three Medicinal Plants for the Control of Fusarium Wilt of Potato In Vitro

Perpetual M. Katsriku
Julius Onyango Ochuodho

Introduction Fusarium wilt is a major vascular disease affecting Irish potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) worldwide. Fusarium oxysporum (F. oxysporum), a soil-dwelling pathogen, is the primary causative agent. The pathogen infiltrates the root system and commandeers the xylem vessels, resulting in wilting, chlorosis, stunting, and a significant reduction in tuber yield. Controlling this disease is challenging due to the prolonged viability of the pathogen’s chlamydospores in soil and the limited availability of resistant potato varieties [20]. The existing dependence on synthetic fungicides prompts apprehensions regarding environmental toxicity, disease resistance, and human health, hence necessitating the exploration of sustainable, eco-friendly alternatives [6]. Plant-derived extracts may serve as a viable source of antimicrobial agents for the formulation of bio-fungicides. This approach adheres to the principles of integrated pest management (IPM) and the increasing demand for safer agricultural chemicals [10]. Euclea divinorum Hiern (Ebenaceae), Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (Rosaceae), and Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl (Apocynaceae) are ethnobotanically important plants in East Africa, historically employed for the treatment of diverse health conditions. This signifies that secondary metabolism is exceptionally resilient. E. divinorum is acknowledged for its antibacterial and antioxidant attributes, ascribed to naphthoquinones and triterpenoids [11]. Comprehensive studies have been undertaken on the bark of P. africana, which encompasses various bioactive compounds, including phytosterols. Nonetheless, limited research has been undertaken regarding its leaves [19]. Nyagumbo propose that C. edulis possesses antibacterial activities and anti-inflammatory advantages [15]. Despite the acknowledged advantages of these plants, there has been insufficient research on their efficacy against phytopathogenic fungi, particularly Fusarium oxysporum in potatoes. The extraction solvent is essential as it modifies the polarity and spectrum of the isolated molecules, hence affecting their bioactivity [13]. Acetone, methanol, and hexane exhibit varying polarities, enabling the extraction of a range of antimicrobial compounds, from non-polar terpenoids in hexane to medium-polarity phenolics in acetone and high-polarity glycosides in methanol. This study evaluated the effectiveness of acetone, methanol, and hexane extracts from the leaves, roots, and stems of Euclea divinorum, Prunus africana, and Carissa edulis against Fusarium oxysporum, the pathogen that causes wilt in Irish potatoes. The results will enhance the scientific validation of these ethnobotanical resources and pinpoint potential lead extracts for the formulation of botanical fungicides. Fusarium wilt, caused primarily by the soil-borne pathogen Fusarium oxysporum (F. oxysporum), is a devastating vascular disease affecting Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivation worldwide [12]. The pathogen invades the root system, colonises the xylem vessels, and leads to wilting, chlorosis, stunting, and significant tuber yield losses. Managing this disease is challenging due to the longevity of the pathogen’s chlamydospores in soil and the limited availability of resistant potato cultivars [20]. Current dependence on synthetic fungicides raises concerns regarding environmental toxicity, pathogen resistance, and human health, driving the search for sustainable, eco-friendly alternatives [6]. Plant-derived botanicals represent a promising reservoir of antimicrobial compounds, offering a potential basis for bio-fungicide development. This approach aligns with integrated pest management (IPM) principles and the growing demand for safer agricultural inputs [10]. Euclea divinorum Hiern (Ebenaceae), Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (Rosaceae), and Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl (Apocynaceae) are ethnobotanically significant species in East Africa, traditionally used to treat various ailments, indicative of their rich secondary metabolism. E. divinorum, for instance, is renowned for its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, attributed to naphthoquinones and triterpenoids [11]. P. africana bark is rich in bioactive compounds like phytosterols and is widely studied; however, its leaves are less explored [19]. C. edulis is reported to possess antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities [15]. While these plants have documented uses, their efficacy against phytopathogenic fungi, specifically Fusarium oxysporum affecting potatoes, remains underexplored. The choice of extraction solvent is critical, as it influences the polarity and spectrum of compounds recovered, thereby affecting bioactivity [13]. Acetone, methanol, and hexane offer a range of polarities, facilitating the extraction of diverse antimicrobial compounds, from non-polar terpenoids in hexane to medium-polarity phenolics in acetone and high-polarity glycosides in methanol. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the in vitro antifungal activity of leaf, root, and stem bark extracts of Euclea divinorum, Prunus africana, and Carissa edulis, prepared using acetone, methanol, and hexane, against Fusarium oxysporum causing wilt in Irish potato. The findings will contribute to the scientific validation of these ethnobotanical resources and identify potential lead extracts for developing botanical fungicides. Methodology 2.1. Isolation and identification of Fusarium oxysporum Irish Potato plants exhibiting indications of Fusarium wilt were transported to the laboratory in sterile paper bags. The Irish potato plants were individually washed with tap water to eliminate dirt, cut into 1 cm fragments, surface sterilised with 0.1% sodium hypochlorite for three minutes, and rinsed three times alternately with sterile distilled water. The specimens were subsequently infected at five equidistant locations on PDA within a 90 mm Petri dish and cultured for 7 days at room temperature (28 ± 2 °C). Mycelia were sub-cultured onto new PDA, and additional sub-culturing was performed until pure cultures of F. oxysporum were achieved. Slides of 7-day-old mycelia from pure cultures of F. oxysporum were analysed using a compound microscope (Leica DME, Leica Microsystems, Shanghai, China). The identification as F. oxysporum was validated by contrasting their physical and cultural traits with the photographs and descriptions provided by [2]. 2.2. Collection of Plant Samples Leaves and roots of Euclea divinorum Hiern (Ebenaceae) and Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl (Apocynaceae) and the stem barks and leaves of Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (Rosaceae) were intentionally harvested from Elgeyo Marakwet County in 2025. The specimen was subsequently transported to the Department of Botany Herbarium for verification and allocation of a voucher specimen number. 2.3. Preparation of Plant Extracts The roots, leaves, and stem barks of the collected plants were washed with tap water and distilled water, then shade-dried for two weeks. The materials were converted into fine powders using a laboratory grinding mill. Subsequently, they were enclosed in airtight bags, tagged, and maintained in darkness until extraction. Approximately 50 grams of each plant powder were measured and extracted with 0.5 litres of ethanol by continuously swirling with a magnetic stirrer for three hours. The extract was subjected to filtration using filter paper and subsequently evaporated to dryness under vacuum conditions. The extract was … Read more

A Comprehensive Review on Argyeria Nervosa

Tushar Chaudhary
Owais Mohd Qureshi
Tarun Parashar

Argyeria nervosa (family: Convolvulaceae), known as elephant creeper or wooly morning glory, grows along river banks, lake margins, and in semi-deciduous forest undergrowth. Its leaves contain quercetin-1-triacontanol, β-sitosterol and quercetin. The plant has been traditionally employed for anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal and anti-inflammatory purposes and is claimed to possess rejuvenating, anti-ageing and spermatogenic effects. [1] Seeds contain the highest levels of psychoactive constituents while leaves and roots in India are commonly used as antiseptic and anti-inflammatory agents. In Unani medicine, the roots are described as aphrodisiac and diuretic and are used for gonorrhoea. The leaves function as antiphlogistic emollients, local stimulants, rubefacients, and other dermatological. Leaf extracts are administered internally for boils and swellings, while external applications are used for eczema, ulcers, ringworm, and other skin conditions. The seeds function as hypotensive, spasmolytic, and general tonics. [2] Additional reports include Anti-convulsant and nootropic activities [3,4]. Topical ethanol extract of Argyeria nervosa leaves significantly accelerates wound healing in both normal and diabetic foot models. [5,6] Scientific Classification Key Taxonomical Details[32] Vernacular name Gujarati: Samundrasosh, Vardharo Hindi: Samandar-ka-pat, Samundarsokha, Ghav-patta Bengal: Bichtarak, Guguli Malayalam: Samudrapachcha, Samudrapala, Samudrastokam Marathi: Samandarshokh, Samudrasoka Sanskrit: Antakotarapushpi, Chhagalanghhri, Vryddhadaraka, Sam MORPHOLOGY Root Argyeria nervosa is often known as elephant creeper is a type of plant that is generally tells it age through its texture. To examine its roots and stems it is distinguished in the following way. The roots generally vary significantly depending on its their maturity. Younger roots: They usually measure only up to 2 to 4mm and are quite delicate. They have smooth and brownish skin. The younger roots when cut into a slice generally display a dark ring right in the middle . Mature roots: when the plant ages the roots are thicken reaching up to 25mm or more. The root skin becomes rough and bumpy due to a high concentration of small pores. The older roots include a colourless tertiary phloem in the internal structure which is paired with a pinkish, crescent-shaped “tertiary xylem”. The stems undergo a similar transformation as it climbs. Early stage: when the stem is young, it appears pure white and feels soft to touch. Maturity: when the stem reaches about 25mm in thickness, it loses its soft appearance. But it develops deep vertical ridges and is covered in elongated pores[26,30]. Leaf The lower surface of the leaf is fully covered with hair, which gives the leaf silver a soft woolly appearance. The upper surface of the leaf is generally green, glorious and also shows the marking of nerves by slight depressions. The mature leaf is Dorsiventral, Unicostate with a midnerve and several lateral nerves which are cordate at the base. The margin is entire but slightly wavy near the base. On the midrib 14-20 pairs of lateral nerves arises and on the neighbouring nerve the anterior branch unites with the posterior branch which are connected by an arched nervule[26,31]. Seeds The seeds of Argyeria nervosa are commonly known as Hawaiian Baby Wood Rose. They are easily identified by their distinct, roughly triangular shape which include two flat or slightly concave faces and one round face. Leafs measure roughly 0.5 to 0.75cm in length and up to 5mm in width. The seeds have a generally hard, stony texture which makes them difficult to break easily. It’s include a hilum generally a brown, circular mark nestled within a small depression at the seeds wider end. The surface of the leafs is generally smooth, and often dusted with persistent patches of white, papery pulp[26,29]. 2.Phytochemical constituents of Argyeria nervosa The following table summarizing the major phytochemicals classes found in Argyeria nervosa and their associated biological activities along with its wound healing capability. These plants secondary metabolites play crucial roles in environmental interaction and defence form the basis of many traditional and modern medicines. 3. Pharmacological Activities of Argyeria nervosa. 1. Argyeria nervosa (family Convolvulaceae), commonly known as Hawaiian baby wood rose, is a medicinal plant known for its rich content of ergoline alkaloids and diverse pharmacological properties[7]. 2. The plant contains lysergic acid amide (LSA), lysergic acid hydroxyethyl amide (LSH), ergometrine, chanoclavine, elymoclavine, agroclavine, flavonoids, tannins, phenolic compounds, saponins, and glycosides[8]. 3. Central Nervous System Activity LSA acts as a partial agonist at serotonin receptors, particularly 5HTA, 5HTA, and 5HTC receptors. This leads to modulation of thalamocortical signalling, altered sensory perception, mood changes, and cognition[9]. 4. Sedative and Anxiolytic Effects Partial agonism at 5HTA receptors and indirect modulation of GABAergic pathways result in reduced anxiety and sedative effects at lower doses[10]. Conclusion Argyeria nervosa stands with ayurvedic wisdom and modern pharmaceutical sciences. Traditionally, it is used as a memory enhancer, improves reproductive health, and supports vitality. In modern Pharmaceutical research, it yields results in the field of green nanotechnology, such as antibacterial and anticancer-treating nanoparticles. If it is not used efficiently and the extraction and use of Argyria nervosa is not done safely, it can be lethal due to its high content of alkaloids. Argyeria nervosa shows huge potential in treating and curing diseases, but it requires a transition from animal studies to human clinical studies and standardised dosing to unlock its full potential without any risk. References

Morphological diversity of Lasiodiplodia sp. isolates infecting woody and fruit crops in Côte d’Ivoire

Yaya Kone¹
Akissi Sandrine Yao¹
Adjoa Marie Josephine Kouadia¹
Massiata Dagnogo¹
Léon Etien Hamian²
Eric-Olivier Tienebo¹
Kouakou Théodore Kouadio¹
Kouabenan Abo¹

1. INTRODUCTION Fungal diseases pose a major threat to agricultural production in tropical regions, affecting both the quality and yield of woody and fruit crops [1]. In Côte d’Ivoire, crops such as cashew (Anacardium occidentale), mango (Mangifera indica), cacao (Theobroma cacao), and rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) are important sources of income for local producers. However, the productivity of these crops is frequently limited by fungal diseases, including those caused by Lasiodiplodia [6]. Lasiodiplodia spp. is a phytopathogenic fungus widely distributed in tropical and subtropical zones, responsible for fruit rot, twig dieback, and cankers on many woody trees [12]. This genus is distinguished by its high morphological and physiological diversity, influenced by the host species, growing environment, and agroecological conditions [8,11]. In Côte d’Ivoire, despite some studies on *Lasiodiplodia theobromae* in cocoa and mango plantations [3], knowledge of the morphological diversity, distribution, and pathogenic potential of isolates from different crops remains limited. Morpho-cultural and microscopic characterization of isolates is an essential tool for understanding the variability of fungal populations and adapting integrated disease management strategies [4,15]. Indeed, the diversity of traits such as mycelial growth, pycnid production, and conidia density and morphology can reflect the genetic variability of isolates and their ability to adapt to environmental conditions [14]. Thus, this study aims to evaluate the distribution and morphological and cultural diversity of Lasiodiplodia sp. isolates collected from different woody and fruit crops in Côte d’Ivoire, in order to provide useful information for disease management and the improvement of agricultural productivity. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. Prospecting and sample collection Surveys were conducted during the production season in the main agro-ecological and agricultural production areas of Côte d’Ivoire. They covered several crops of economic interest, including cashew, mango, cocoa, cola, rubber, Accra Cone, and banana (Figure 1). Plant material exhibiting characteristic symptoms, including dieback, cracking with exposure of internal tissues, gummy exudations, and rot were collected in the field. A total of 281 samples were collected from several locations distributed across different production regions, depending on the crops studied (Table 1). The collection covered 96 locations for cashew, 50 for cola (Cola nitida), 38 for cocoa (Theobroma cacao), 34 for mango (Mangifera indica), 29 for rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), 11 for Accra Cone (Polyalthia longifolia), and 11 for banana (Musa acuminata), distributed respectively across 7 to 15 regions depending on the crop. Cocoa pods naturally affected by black rot were collected from different trees within each surveyed plot and individually packaged in labeled plastic bags (date, plot code, and sample number). The banana samples, harvested at physiological maturity, from industrial plantations were obtained in Zambakro, Abengourou, Tiassalé, Dabou, Béoumi, Azaguié, and Agboville. A detailed breakdown of the samples by crop, location, and region is presented in Table 1. The collected samples were kept in plastic bags and transported to the phytopathology laboratory of the INP-HB in Yamoussoukro. 2.2. Isolation and purification of fungi The isolation and purification of fungi were carried out in the laboratory according to protocols adapted to the plant organs studied. For stem samples, the method described by [19] was applied with slight modifications. Symptomatic fragments of mango, rubber, cola, Accra Cone, and cashew stems (≈ 1 cm) were superficially disinfected in a 50% sodium hypochlorite solution for 1 min, then rinsed three times with sterile distilled water before being placed on PDA medium amended with citric acid. The harvested bananas were washed, rinsed with sterile distilled water, and kept at 28°C. Ripening was homogenized by immersion in an ethylene solution (2 ml·L⁻¹) according to [9]. After lesions appeared, the fruits were disinfected with 70% alcohol, and fragments taken from the growth front were inoculated onto PDA medium. For cocoa, subcortical tissue fragments were collected from necrotic lesions of pods affected by black rot, after disinfection with 96% alcohol and flaming, and then placed on PDA medium [5]. Petri dishes were incubated in the dark for 3 days at 28 ± 2 °C. Isolates were purified by subculturing at the mycelial growth front [5]. 2.3. Laboratory identification The final stage of the study consisted of identifying the pathogens associated with fruit dieback and rot. Isolates were characterized based on morphological criteria, including macroscopic observation of colonies (color, general appearance, and presence of pycnidia) and microscopic examination of conidia (morphology, color, and size). Species identification was performed by referring to the descriptions and taxonomic keys proposed by [16]. 2.4. Morphological characterization of the isolates In total, 161 isolates representative of the different sampling areas were selected for the evaluation of morpho-cultural parameters. The study was carried out on three culture media: PDA, MEA and agar, prepared according to the protocols described by [18] for PDA and agar media, and by [13] for the MEA medium [8]. For each isolate, a 4–5 mm diameter mycelial explant, taken from the growth front of a 5-day-old culture on PDA, was placed in the center of Petri dishes containing the different media. Each isolate was subcultured into five dishes (replicates) and incubated at 28 ± 2 °C under a 12 h/12 h light/dark cycle, as described by [16]. Morphological and cultural traits were assessed based on mycelial growth rate, as well as mycelium color and texture. Radial growth was measured daily by drawing two perpendicular axes on the back of each Petri dish and then calculating the average of the two diameters until the dish was fully filled [7]. The average growth of each isolate was determined from the five replicates. The diameter (in mm) of each isolate was measured in two perpendicular directions, and the average colony diameter was calculated using equation 1. where D is the average diameter of the isolate in a box, d1 and d2 are the measurements of the two perpendicular diameters. Growth was measured daily until full culture expansion using equation 2: where CM is the daily mycelial growth rate, Ddn is the average diameter growth on the day of measurement. Dd0 = initial diameter of the mycelium disc, which is 5 mm [8]. The appearance of colonies and … Read more

Analysis of Cashew Tree Yield Variability at the Tree and Orchard Scales

Gabésongon Kone¹
Abo Kouabenan¹
Mariam Bognan Coulibaly²

Introduction The cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale L.), a perennial species belonging to the Anacardiaceae family, is native to northeastern Brazil. Widely recognized for the significant economic value of its fruit—the cashew nut—the species was introduced to Africa and Asia by the Portuguese [1]. Although initially deployed to combat soil erosion, it has since evolved into a major cash crop across West Africa [2]. This transition is driven by its high market value, the increasing organization of the value chain, and its vital socioeconomic role in rural communities. Currently cultivated in nearly all tropical regions, cashew nuts hold a strategic position in Côte d’Ivoire, which emerged as the world’s leading producer of raw cashew nuts (RCN) in 2019 [3]. By 2023, Ivorian production reached an estimated 1,225,935 tons, accounting for approximately 40% of global output [4]. The cashew tree plays a fundamental role in the socioeconomic landscape of rural populations in Côte d’Ivoire. Much like cocoa, its cultivation enables the northern and northeastern regions to bolster financial resources and improve access to essential education and healthcare services. Cashew farming is predominantly characterized by smallholder family farms, with plots typically ranging from 0.5 to 3 hectares. These systems frequently employ intercropping with food crops, a strategy that not only optimizes land utilization but also reduces maintenance costs; specifically, the expanding canopy of the cashew trees naturally suppresses weed growth. Revenue generated from the marketing of cashew nuts is further utilized to fund social ceremonies (such as weddings, funerals, and rituals), acquire consumer goods (including motorcycles and appliances), and invest in housing construction [5]. Overall, the cashew sector supports approximately 2.5 million Ivorians and contributes 7% to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) [5]. Despite its socioeconomic importance, the average yield per hectare remains relatively low, estimated at 620 kg/ha, which is significantly below the optimal potential of 1,200 kg/ha for raw cashew nuts (RCN). This yield gap is attributed to several factors, including insufficient agricultural investment, limited knowledge regarding input application, and a lack of proficiency in essential cultural practices, such as pruning. Previous studies have highlighted these challenges, emphasizing that specific agricultural behaviors and technical constraints directly contribute to the low productivity of orchards across the region [7, 8, 9]. Notwithstanding the alarming data on low yields, comprehensive knowledge of tree cropping systems in West Africa remains limited and fragmented. Whether at the micro-scale (individual tree) or the macro-scale (plot or production basin), available data are frequently imprecise, incomplete, or absent In Côte d’Ivoire, while cashew nuts occupy a strategic position in rural economies—serving as an essential income source for producers in the north and northeast—the crop’s potential remains largely under-exploited. This underperformance is compounded by high yield variability, which remains poorly documented at both the tree and orchard levels. A deeper understanding of this variability is therefore critical to identifying primary limiting factors and developing tailored agronomic interventions. In this context, the present study aims to analyze cashew nut yield variability at two distinct levels: the individual tree and the orchard. Specifically, the objectives are to: Research Hypotheses H1: Tree productivity varies significantly based on age and planting density. H2: Tree morphology (height, trunk diameter, and canopy diameter) is significantly influenced by both planting density and tree age. METHODS Materials And Methods This section details the resources and procedures implemented to conduct the study. It is organized into two primary components: Materials, which include a description of the study site, plant material, and measurement tools; and Methods, which provide a detailed account of the data collection protocols and statistical analyses. Study Site The study was conducted across 24 orchards in the Poro region (8°26’–10°27′ N, 8°26’–10°27′ W). Covering an area of 13,400 km², the Poro region is organized into four departments: Dikodougou, Korhogo (the regional capital), M’Bengué, and Sinématiali. The regional climate is Sudanese, characterized by a distinct dry season from November to April and a rainy season from May to October [10]. Annual rainfall typically ranges from 1,000 to 1,400 mm, with average monthly temperatures between 26.93°C and 27.02°C, peaking at approximately 36°C in March [11]. The vegetation is diverse, featuring Sudanese savanna in the northern reaches and sub-Sudanese savanna in the south. The topography is varied, with elevations such as Mount Korhogo exceeding 500 m. Soils are predominantly ferralitic, ferruginous, and hydromorphic, characterized by high permeability and porosity. The local economy is primarily driven by livestock and agriculture, including major cash crops (cotton and cashew) as well as food crops (yam, rice, and sorghum). Materials This subsection details the equipment used, ranging from field data collection (morphological and yield parameters) to laboratory-based statistical processing. Plant Material The plant material consisted of cashew trees (Anacardium occidentale L.) located within 24 orchards delineated into study plots in the Poro region. Technical Equipment Cashew tree dimensions were measured using a decameter, while a graduated wooden pole was used for height measurements. Plot boundaries (2,500 m²) were established using ropes, and the seven selected sample trees per plot were marked with spray paint. For nut collection and measurement, harvest bags and a precision scale were used. Data (nut mass and quantity per tree and per plot) were initially recorded in field notebooks and subsequently digitized using Open Data Kit (ODK). Methods Orchard Selection To analyze cashew yield variability at both the tree and plot scales, four age categories were selected: 5, 10, 20, and 30 years. These categories were chosen to better understand yield fluctuations and tree physiological behavior over time. Data Collection Design A preliminary survey was conducted to assess orchard age and density. Consequently, the selection focused on these two factors. For each of the four age categories (5, 10, 20, and 30 years), three planting density classes were defined: Plot Establishment: Based on these criteria, 18 orchards were selected (2 orchards per density class × 3 density classes × 4 age categories — Note: Please verify if the total is 18 or 24 based on your math). Within each orchard, a 50 m × 50 m (2,500 m²) plot was established, and seven specific trees were monitored within each … Read more

Assessment of the Growth of Agronomic Parameters of Pumpkin (Curcubita pepo L.) to Rates of Poultry Manure

Onwubiko, G. N.
Okereke, C.S.

Introduction Vegetables are gradually acknowledged as crucial for food and nutrition security [22]. However, organic vegetables are increasingly preferable to many consumers as they are shifting their food choice priorities towards food they perceive to be healthier for themselves and the environment. Cucurbita pepo is a squash or pumpkin belonging to the Cucurbitaceae family and genus cucurbita that resembles a guard, with over 130 genera and up to 800 species [21]. In the agricultural industry, pumpkins are cultivated as vegetables on a large scale, contributing to the agricultural economy. The production and sale of pumpkins, whether for fresh consumption or processing into various products, generate revenue for farmers and the agricultural sector. They are processed into a wide range of food products such as pumpkin soup, pumpkin-based snacks, pumpkin pie filling, etcetera. These processed products contribute to the food industry’s revenue and provide employment opportunities in processing and manufacturing plants. The seasonal demand for pumpkins drives retail sales of fresh pumpkins, decorative pumpkins, and pumpkin-related products, contributing to the economy, especially in regions with a vibrant pumpkin culture. In some cultures, pumpkins are an important part of traditional dishes and celebrations, such as pumpkin pie in the USA, or pumpkin lanterns on Halloween. Pumpkin is a natural treasure full of health benefits, from its seeds to its flesh and even leaves; almost every part of pumpkin can be used for healing, nourishment, or even beauty. Pumpkin is highly nutritious and enriched in vitamins A, C, and E, dietary fiber, and potassium [11]. Pumpkin is rich in potassium, which helps to balance the effects of so much sodium in the body. These nutrients support overall health and well-being, making pumpkins a valuable addition to a nutritious diet. The fiber in pumpkin aids absorption of sugar in the bloodstream thus regulating blood sugar levels, supports digestion, and relieves constipation ([6]. Their vibrant orange colour is indicative of their high beta-carotene content, which helps to improve eyesight and reduce the risk of eye diseases like night blindness and age-related macular degeneration. These carotenoids possess properties associated with a reduced risk of certain chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and certain types of cancer, and support immune function [17,23]. Also, cucurbitacins, a group of compounds found in Cucurbita pepo, reportedly possess anti-inflammatory and potentially alleviate symptoms associated with inflammatory conditions such as arthritis and certain autoimmune disorders [7]. Cucurbita fruit is low in calories and provides many advantages for human health, including blood cleansing, constipation relief, improved digestion, and energy production [9]. Cucurbita seed kernels have been employed as functional materials and nutrient supplements in baking, cooking, and ground meat compositions [25,13]. It has been observed that the seed extract possesses antioxidant, antitumor, antibacterial, anticancer, and antimutagenic properties [7]. Strong hypo-triglyceridemic and serum cholesterol-lowering effects have also been observed [16]. The nutrients in pumpkin are essential for various bodily functions important for good health such as hydration and boosting immune support [26]. Its high-water content and antioxidants make it great for feeling full and boosting your body’s defense. Pumpkin seeds, also called pepitas, are used to reduce prostate enlargement. The high quantity of zinc in the seed can be used for the management of prostate problems. Pumpkin seed oil is mostly composed of linoleic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, tacophenol, ß-sitosterol, and delta-7-sterols. Pumpkin pulp is rich in nutrients and health-promoting properties such as proteins, carotene, mineral salts, vitamins, and polysaccharide-like proteins [8]. The significance of this crop in human life makes it crucial to research on and to boost its production to keep up with the rising demand for its products. Soil fertility is a significant issue that hinders the productivity of crops [19]. The optimum temperature range for pumpkin growth and development is paramount to determining yield and quality. Pumpkin plants prefers well-drained, loamy soils with a good balance of sand, silt, and clay and the optimum soil pH range is between 6.0 and 7.5 (slightly acidic to neutral soils). Additionally, environmental factors such as soil moisture, light intensity, and relative humidity, can also influence the plant’s growth and development [14]. Poultry manure is a well-established and desirable organic fertilizer that bolsters soil fertility by adding both essential nutrients and soil organic matter. Each of these components contribute positively to moisture and nutrient retention in the soil [15]. Of all animal-derived manures, chicken manure is considered best organic soil fertilizer forfor crops due to its richness in most of the major nutrients required for plant growth. Some of these qualities include microbiological activities, soil tilth, and chemical properties [28,29]. The application of poultry manure in record yielded over 53% increases in N level in the soil, from 0.09% to 0.14 % and exchangeable cations increased with manure application [10]. When added in the appropriate amount, poultry manure enhances soil quality and provides nutrients for crop growth because it is high in organic matter and other nutrients required for plant growth [27]. According to [12], adding poultry manure to the soil enhanced its water-soluble qualities and carbon content while decreasing its bulk density. The ideal rates of poultry manure application can vary based on soil nutrient levels, manure source/composition, and specific cultivar needs. Having a soil test done is recommended to determine precise fertilizer requirements when using manures and over application of the poultry manure can lead to nutrient imbalances or salt issues. Poultry manure is considered a high-nitrogen fertilizer, and too much application can lead to excessive vegetative growth at the expense of fruiting. Poultry manure is abundant in nitrogen (3-4% N) and moderate in phosphorus (2-5% P2O5). It is low in potassium, so supplementing with K may be needed, especially for fruiting. The nutrient ratio is around 3-2-1 for N-P-K in poultry manure. It was previously reported that applying poultry manure at rates up to 20 tons/ha significantly improved pumpkin plants’ growth and yield parameters, including vine length, number of leaves, number of branches, leaf length, and stem girth [2]. In a later report, poultry manure application promoted early flowering and … Read more

Potassium Use Efficiency of Modern Rice Variety Influenced by Integrated Nutrient Management Options in Dry Season

Chowdhury Md. Humayun Kabir¹
Alok Kumar Pau²
Biswajit Karmakar³
Israt Alam⁴
Khalid Syfullah⁵

INTRODUCTION Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the primary staple food for more than half of the global population and plays a crucial role in global food security and rural livelihoods [1, 2]. According to Food and Agriculture Organization, rice is cultivated on over 160 million hectares worldwide, producing more than 750 million tons annually [3, 4]. In Bangladesh, rice dominates the agricultural sector, occupying about 75% of total cropped area and contributing substantially to national food supply and farm income [5, 6]. Despite remarkable progress in varietal development and crop management, average rice yield in Bangladesh remains lower than that of major rice-producing countries due to nutrient imbalances, soil fertility decline, and inefficient fertilizer use. Potassium (K) is one of the three primary macronutrients required in large quantities for rice growth and productivity [7, 8, 9, and 10]. It plays key physiological roles in enzyme activation, photosynthesis, osmotic regulation, assimilate transport, and stress tolerance. Adequate potassium supply enhances resistance to lodging, pests, and diseases, improves grain filling, and increases yield stability [9]. Rice crops typically remove 100–300 kg K ha⁻¹ per season, yet K fertilization in many rice-growing areas is often inadequate relative to crop removal, leading to soil K depletion and declining productivity [11, 12]. Continuous intensive cropping, use of high-yielding varieties, and limited recycling of crop residues further aggravate potassium deficiency in South Asian soils. Improving potassium use efficiency (KUE) has therefore become essential for sustainable rice production[13,14,15]. Integrated nutrient management (INM), combining inorganic fertilizers with organic amendments such as cowdung or compost, has been widely recommended to enhance nutrient availability, improve soil physical properties, and increase fertilizer efficiency. Organic amendments can increase cation exchange capacity, reduce nutrient losses, stimulate microbial activity, and enhance K availability from non-exchangeable soil pools. However, information on KUE of modern high-yielding rice varieties under different integrated nutrient management options during the dry (Boro) season remains limited[3]. Modern rice varieties developed by Bangladesh Rice Research Institute have higher yield potential but also greater nutrient demand. Efficient nutrient management strategies are therefore required to achieve high productivity without degrading soil health. Understanding potassium uptake dynamics and use efficiency under different fertilization strategies will help optimize fertilizer recommendations and improve sustainability of rice-based systems [16,17,18]. Therefore, the present study was conducted to evaluate the growth performance, yield, potassium uptake, and potassium use efficiency of a modern rice variety under different fertilizer management options, including recommended practice, soil-test-based fertilization, and integrated nutrient management during the Boro season. The findings are expected to provide guidance for improving potassium management and sustaining rice productivity in intensive rice-growing regions. Materials and Methods Study Site The experiment was conducted during the Boro seasons of 2022 and 2023 at the research field of Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, located in Dhaka. The site belongs to the Agro-Ecological Zone (AEZ-28, Madhupur Tract) and is characterised by subtropical monsoon climate with mild winter and hot, humid summer. The experiment was carried out on typical rice-growing silty clay loam soil at the Soil Science Farm of Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University. Surface soil samples (0–20 cm depth) were collected before land preparation and analysed for physicochemical propertiesThe soil contained 18.60% sand, 45.40% silt, and 36.00% clay, with a pH of 6.8, organic matter 1.38%, total N 0.06%, available P 19.85 mg kg⁻¹, exchangeable K 0.12 meq 100 g⁻¹, and available S 14.40 mg kg⁻¹. Experimental Design and Treatments The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Plot size was 3 m × 4 m, and plots were separated by 0.5 m bunds. Seven potassium management treatments were evaluated using the rice variety BRRI dhan100: Fertiliser sources included urea for N, triple superphosphate for P, muriate of potash for K, gypsum for S, and zinc sulfate for Zn. Cowdung was well-decomposed before application. Crop Establishment and Management Seeds of BRRI dhan100 were sown in well-prepared wet nursery beds on 11 December 2021 and 7 December 2022. Thirty-five-day-old seedlings were transplanted on 26 January 2022 and 13 January 2023 at 25 cm × 15 cm spacing with 2–3 seedlings per hill. Cowdung was incorporated 20 days before transplanting. The full doses of P, K, S, and Zn were applied during final land preparation, while nitrogen from urea was applied in three equal splits at 15, 30, and 45 days after transplanting. Standard agronomic practices including irrigation, weeding, and plant protection were applied uniformly across treatments. The crop was harvested at physiological maturity when approximately 85–90% of grains turned golden yellow. A central harvest area of 6 m² per plot was used to determine grain and straw yields. Grain yield was adjusted to 14% moisture content and straw yield to 3% moisture. Plant Sampling and Nutrient Analysis Grain and straw samples were oven-dried, ground, and analysed for potassium content. Digested samples were diluted to a known volume, and potassium concentration was determined using a flame photometer. Nutrient uptake was calculated by multiplying nutrient concentration with corresponding biomass yield. Potassium Use Efficiency Indices Potassium use efficiency indices were calculated using standard equations: Partial Factor Productivity of K (PFPK) PFPK (kg kg-1) = GY+K/FK [18] Agronomic Efficiency of K (AEK) AEK (kg kg-1) = (GY+K – GY0K)/FK [18] Recovery Efficiency of K (REK) REK = (UK+K – UK0K)/FK [18] Physiological Efficiency of K (PEK) PEK (kg kg-1) = (GY+K – GY0K)/(UN+K – UN0K) [18,19] Internal Efficiency of K (IEK) IEK = GY/UK [19] Potassium Harvest Index (KHI) NHI = GK/TK [18,19,20] where GY+K and GY0K are grain yields with and without potassium, FKis applied potassium, U+Kand U0K are potassium uptake with and without fertiliser, GK is grain potassium uptake, and TK is total plant potassium uptake. Statistical Analysis Data were analysed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) appropriate for RCBD. Treatment means were separated using Least Significant Difference (LSD) at 5% probability level [21]. Statistical analyses were performed using Statistix 10. Experimental Validity The experiment was repeated across two consecutive years to ensure reproducibility and minimise seasonal variability. Uniform crop management … Read more

Farmers’ Characteristics and Constraints in T-aman Rice Cultivation in Bangladesh

Md. Jahangir Kabir¹
Md. Shamsuzzoha²
Md. Raju Ahmad³
Nur- E -Shahrin Nurani⁴
Madhuri Rani Roy⁵

2. Introduction Bangladesh’s economy and rural society are strongly shaped by agriculture, which continues to play a pivotal role in employment generation, food supply, and livelihood security. Approximately four-fifths of the population are engaged in agricultural activities either directly or through related sectors, which contributes about 18.4% to the national gross domestic product [1]. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the staple food and the dominant crop, occupying approximately 80% of the cultivated land and serving as the primary source of calories for the population [2,3]. However, rapid population growth, declining cultivable land, and increasing climate variability pose serious challenges to sustaining rice production. Rice cultivation in Bangladesh follows three seasonal cycles—Aus, Aman, and Boro—among which transplanted Aman (T-aman) occupies the largest share, accounting for nearly half of the country’s total rice-growing area [4]. Despite its importance, T-aman productivity remains highly vulnerable to climatic stresses, including floods, drought spells, erratic rainfall, cold waves, and riverbank erosion. Such stresses are especially acute in northern Bangladesh, particularly in areas influenced by the Teesta and Jamuna river systems, where fragile agro-ecological conditions and limited opportunities for livelihood diversification restrict agricultural productivity. One of the most critical manifestations of agricultural vulnerability in northern Bangladesh is Monga, a recurring seasonal phenomenon of food insecurity and unemployment. Monga is most pronounced during the pre-harvest scarcity period preceding the Aman rice harvest (mid-September to mid-November) and, to a lesser extent, before the Boro harvest [5]. Poor or unstable Aman rice yields are widely recognized as a major driver of Monga, as rural livelihoods in the region are heavily dependent on agricultural wage labor and a limited number of cropping cycles. In districts such as Gaibandha, Kurigram, Rangpur, Nilphamari, and Lalmonirhat, crop failure or reduced T-aman productivity often leads to sharp income declines, food shortages, and heightened vulnerability among smallholder and landless households. Farmers’ ability to achieve stable T-aman production is constrained by multiple agronomic, environmental, and socio-economic factors. These include drought or untimely rainfall, flooding and waterlogging, lack of early-maturing or stress-tolerant varieties, inadequate access to quality seed, limited extension support, and poor access to inputs [6]. The extent to which farmers confront these problems is not uniform and may vary depending on individual characteristics. Understanding how these characteristics influence farmers’ problem confrontation is essential for designing effective extension strategies and policy interventions aimed at improving T-aman productivity and reducing Monga-related food insecurity [7]. Despite the recognized importance of T-aman rice for food security in northern Bangladesh, systematic empirical evidence on the nature and severity of problems faced by farmers—and how these problems relate to their socio-economic characteristics—remains limited [8]. Most existing studies focus on poverty, food security, or climatic vulnerability, with comparatively little attention given to farmer-level problem confrontation in T-aman cultivation. Addressing this knowledge gap is crucial for developing targeted, context-specific solutions [9]. We did the study to assess the severity of constraints encountered by farmers in cultivation. We selected Monga-affected areas of northern Bangladesh and to examine the relationship between these problems and farmers’ selected personal, economic, and communication characteristics [10]. The findings are expected to provide valuable insights for agricultural extension services, development practitioners, and policymakers seeking to enhance rice productivity and mitigate seasonal food insecurity in vulnerable regions [11]. 3. Materials and Methods Study Area The study was conducted in two villages—Rajabirat and Katabari—located in Gobindaganj Upazila of Gaibandha district, northern Bangladesh. These villages are situated approximately 20 km and 10 km northeast of the district headquarters, respectively. The study sites were selected purposively due to their high dependence on T-aman cultivation and the absence of prior empirical studies addressing farmers’ problem confrontation in T-aman production in this area. Population and Sampling An updated sampling frame comprising 1,029 T-aman farmers was compiled with support from local Sub-Assistant Agricultural Officers. From this population, 10% of farmers (n = 103) were selected. Survey Instrument and Pre-testing Information was gathered out using an interview schedule specifically designed to address the study objectives. The instrument comprised both open- and closed-ended questions and applied appropriate scaling techniques for measuring the selected variables. Before the main survey, the schedule was pilot-tested with ten T-aman farmers from outside the study area, and revisions were subsequently made to enhance clarity, relevance, and overall consistency. Measurement of Variables Farmers’ Characteristics The study examined nine independent variables: age, level of education, family size, experience, area, annual income, knowledge, extension media contact, and innovativeness. Problems Faced by Farmers in T-Aman Rice Production Problem confrontation was measured using 15 statements related to constraints in T-aman cultivation. The severity of each problem was rated by respondents using a four-point scale ranging from high (3) to not at all (0).An overall problem confrontation score was calculated for each farmer by compiling the responses, yielding a possible range of 0–45, with higher values indicating greater severity of problems.To prioritise individual constraints, a (PCI) was calculated. Hypothesis Testing The null hypothesis posited that farmers’ problem confrontation in T-aman cultivation was not significantly associated with their selected socio-economic and communication characteristics. Data Collection Procedure The researcher collected data via direct, face-to-face interviews during October 2012. Interviews were carried out at respondents’ homes or fields during their leisure time. Rapport was established prior to interviews to ensure accurate and reliable responses. Statistical Treatment and Data Analysis The collected data were coded and analyzed using SPSS software (version 11.5). The data were summarized using descriptive statistical measures, including frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations. Relationships between farmers’ characteristics and problem confrontation scores were analyzed using Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient (r) at the 5% probability level (p ≤ 0.05). 4. Result 4.1 Socio-economic and Farm Characteristics of the Farmers The linkage between selected farmer attributes and problems facing were analyzed using Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficients, as presented in Table 4.11. The variables show negative or non-significant relationship. 4.4 Severity Ranking of Problems in T-aman Cultivation The severity of 15 selected problems was assessed using the Problems Confrontation Index (PCI). PCI values ranged from 69.6 to 279.5 (Table 4.12). High cost of production ranked … Read more

Crop Establishment technique in Redgram- A contingency measure forrealizing higher productivity

Anitta Fanish S
G Guru

Introduction Redgram (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp) is the most vital Kharif pulse crop in India, predominantly cultivated under rainfed conditions. It occupies 3.89 million hectares, contributing 3.02 million tonnes to the national pulse pool; however, its average productivity remains stagnant at 776 kg/ha. The primary barrier to higher yields is low productivity during early growth stages, exacerbated by soil moisture stress and climatic aberrations in the Indian subtropics. During the monsoon, redgram is particularly sensitive to waterlogging, which restricts soil aeration, hinders nutrient uptake, and impairs root nodulation. These unfavorable conditions foster disease incidence and high seedling mortality, leading to a significantly sparse plant stand [1]. Strategically maintaining an optimal plant population in the face of these biotic and abiotic pressures is a major challenge for sustainable production. Furthermore, the late onset of rains often delays sowing, shortening the crop’s vegetative window. To counteract these constraints, transplanting has emerged as a promising alternative. By raising seedlings in a nursery, typically in polyethylene bags and transplanting them into the main field once established, farmers can bypass early-season stressors and ensure a uniform plant stand [2, 3]. Established transplants exhibit rapid early growth and greater competitiveness against weeds compared to direct-sown crops. This technique essentially allows for “virtual” early sowing, enabling the crop to capitalize on the full growing season even when monsoon rains are delayed. However, research regarding optimized nursery protocols, ideal seedling age, and main field configurations is currently limited. Consequently, this study was undertaken to evaluate the feasibility and refine the technical and economic suitability of redgram transplanting for the agro-climatic conditions of Tamil Nadu. Materials and Methods A two-year field study (2022–2023) was conducted at the main farm of the Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore. The experimental site is characterized by a tropical sub-humid climate, featuring an average annual rainfall of 647 mm, with mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures of 33°C and 23°C, respectively. The study was conducted on double-cropped irrigated upland. Prior to the trial, the field followed a Rice–Blackgram rotation. The long-duration redgram variety ‘CO 8’ was utilized for the experiment across both years (2022 and 2023) to assess the efficacy of transplanting as a productivity-sustaining contingency measure. In the field experiments, two transplanting methods (flat-bed vs ridge-furrow) and 4 combinations of nursery raising techniques along with age of seedlings (viz., raising seedling in pro tray or polyethylene bags and transplanting these at 20 and 25 days after seeding; and a control involving in situ seeding in main field simultaneous transplanting with that in portrays and polyethylene bags, were laid out in a factorial RBD with 3 replications. The long-duration variety ‘CO 8’ was selected for its moderate wilt resistance and suitability for the region. Sowing was initiated in mid-July for both experimental years. Prior to sowing, seeds were treated with Rhizobium and Phosphorus Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) at a rate of 1 kg/ha each to enhance nitrogen fixation and nutrient availability. Transplanting of the long-duration ‘CO 8’ variety was synchronized with the onset of monsoon rains, occurring during the first fortnight of August in both 2022 and 2023. To evaluate the impact of land configuration on seedling establishment, two methods were employed: Flatbed Method, Pits were excavated to a depth of 15–20 cm at 30 cm intervals and Ridge Method, Seedlings were transplanted onto 30 cm high ridges. During transplanting, polyethylene bags were carefully removed to ensure the root zone and surrounding soil ball remained undisturbed, maintaining a uniform spacing of 120 x 30 cm across all treatments. A basal fertilizer dose of 25:50:25:20 kg/ha of NPKS + Zn was applied to all plots. Water management was strictly monitored: Immediate irrigation after transplanting, followed by a life-saving irrigation at 10 days after transplanting (DAT). Supplemental irrigation was provided during the critical branching and pod development stages to mitigate rainfall deficits. The crop reached maturity and was harvested during the first week of March in both 2023 and 2024. Biometric data, including seed yield, yield attributes, and economic indicators, were recorded and subjected to rigorous statistical analysis to interpret the efficacy of the transplanting technology. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Seedling Age and Survival The experiment highlighted the distinct advantage of utilizing 25-day-old seedlings as a robust crop contingency measure. Raising seedlings in polyethylene bags ensured a high density of healthy, vigorous plants, which effectively buffered against the initial field stresses that often diminish direct-sown populations. Comparative Performance of Transplanting Methods The crop exhibited significant variation in performance based on both the land configuration and the timing of transplanting. Seedlings transplanted on ridges showed superior root architecture and vegetative growth compared to those in flatbed pits, likely due to enhanced aeration and drainage. Variations in the yield attributes like number of pods per plant and grain weight were directly correlated to the seedling age at the time of field transfer. In respect to economic Viability, While transplanting requires an initial investment in nursery management, the resulting increase in seed yield and plant stand stability significantly improved the overall economics of cultivation compared to conventional methods [4]. The subsequent sections detail the quantitative data recorded over the two-year study period, focusing on the refined schedules that maximize redgram productivity in the Tamil Nadu region. Impact of Land Configuration on Yield and Growth The primary agronomic constraint in redgram productivity is suboptimal plant population, driven by delayed monsoon onset and high seedling mortality from waterlogging. This study demonstrates that land configuration is critical for mitigating these risks. Ridge transplanting achieved a 15.5% (210 kg/ha) yield increase over flat surfaces, regardless of seedling age or nursery method. The yield advantage on ridges is primarily attributed to a 15.6% increase in pods per plant, while 100-seed weight and seeds per plant remained consistent. Ridges provide superior drainage, maintaining soil aeration and nutrient uptake while preventing the negative impacts of waterlogging on nodulation and the rhizosphere micro-environment [8]. Consequently, plants on ridges exhibited more vigorous biometrics, including increased plant height, branch length, and biomass (Table 1), leading to a significantly improved Harvest Index (HI). These findings align with previous research [5, 6, 7] suggesting that raised-bed configurations are essential for redgram sustainability. Optimization of Nursery Technique and Seedling Age Seedling quality and age at transplanting were found to be pivotal for field success. Seedlings raised in black polyethylene bags outperformed those in pro-trays, likely due … Read more

Impact of charcoal on fiber crop, Jute (Corchorus capsularis L) as natural polymer with morphological features, biomass production and root development under natural condition at roof top garden

Kamrun Nahar

Introduction: Jute (Corchorus capsularis L- white Jute) is a potential cash crop and natural polymer that belongs to the Mavaceae family, known to Bangladesh as “Golden Fiber” because of earning foreign currency by exporting it. This cash crop strengthens the national GDP and holds economic significance in our country [1], [2], [16], [21]. It is cultivated in an area of about 9,93,000 acres and produces 46,19,000 m. tons in 2005- 2006 [12]. Among the growing countries, Bangladesh ranks in second position in terms of fiber production. In recent years, it has been well focused as considered as natural polymer and a vital sector in the context of economic, commercial, agricultural, industrial, and, more importantly, environmental aspects in Bangladesh as well as the global markets [69],[58], [6], [13]. Thus, the rising demand for jute production is increasing day by day in national and international markets as the products from jute are environmentally friendly and biodegradable. Farmers are also now interested in production and marketing of raw jute because of its economic importance as well as for future potential of global jute market [5] [30], [31], [32],[33],[36], [39], [42], [44], [46] and [55]. As an eco-friendly, annual and major fiber crop, grown well in tropical and subtropical climates, which attains a height of approximately 3-6 meters, with a thickness of about 2- 2.5 cm, and completes its life cycle in 3 months or 90 days. Its 2 important parts, leaves and stalk, could be used in our daily life for consumption and as biomass resources. Besides the potential for fiber, it could be used commercially and exported to foreign countries. As a sustainable and abiotic stress tolerant and integrated plant biomass, the extraction of fiber could be done in a ecofriendly manner [8],[11],[64], and the extracted fiber from the matured plant used in various types of household products like, bag, carpet, mat, crafts, clothing etc [14], [51]. Besides the fiber, jute sticks are largely used for various domestic purposes as fencing, roofing material, and biomass fuel for cooking purposes, particularly in suburban and rural areas of Bangladesh. In addition, the leaves locally called ‘Pat Shak” are consumed as a vegetable by a major part of our population in urban, suburban and rural areas as well as other Asian countries in the world, which contain different types of vitamins, minerals, protein, including antioxidants [30],[56] and [40]. Furthermore, it contains several metabolites that are important to consider for pharmacological research and human health issues, too [3]. Thus, it is not only considered or used as an economic fiber and cash crop, but it has a tremendous demand as a healthy and nutritious vegetable as well as has medicinal values. The plant has immense adaptability, including sustainability, as it is more water-tolerant and can generally be grown in lowlands and also in waterlogging conditions [68]. Besides, it can be grown in different soil types, ranging from clay to sandy loam with medium to lower fertility status. To evaluate the plant production and maintain the adequate growth, adaptability and yield of Jute production in natural conditions, proper application of amendment is essential to get better biomass yield [7]. In this context, different soil amendments could be used. Jute as an important cash crop that prefers a carbon source. Thus, charcoal could be used as a good amendment and carbon-rich soil conditioner for the production of biomass. It is considered a valuable carbon-rich organic matter that serves as a soil conditioner when applied to soil to improve the fertility status of the soil. It has a synergistic effect that promotes plant growth and development. Besides, its application in soil allows better soil management by increasing microbial activities with the release of essential nutrients required by the plant. Thus, charcoal as a good soil amendment, could be added to soil to increase its fertility, water retention capacity, carbon storage[4],[15],[28] and [29], including improvement of the soil health and fertility status of soil. Jute plants need a number of nutrients for their growth and proper development [66],[70],[71] although applying inorganic fertilizers increases crop yield, but deteriorate soil health as well, resulting in a decrease in crop yield. Charcoal is a carbonized material, which is used to improve soil health and creates a scope to release nutrients slowly as slow releasing amendment. In this present study, charcoal was applied at various rates. Carbonized materials such as charcoal are responsible for the stability of soil carbon, and their application have a ameliorating effect on increasing nutrient holding capacity, including supply in addition of reduction of soil acidity. Thus, maintains soil organic matter in the tropical and subtropical climate due to rapid rates of decomposition. Furthermore, charcoal as a carbonized material and is a cheap source of carbon in soil. However, the varying levels of amendment treatment had diverse effects on seedling and plant growth enhancement [60]. Some of the amendments increased plant height significantly at low levels but decreased with increasing levels of application. However, medium levels of fertilizer as soil amendment promote growth and yield of plants [19]. Charcoal as a carbon source as well as organic fertilizer, is important as it promotes the growth and development of the jute plant. Therefore, an experiment was conducted to investigate the influence of different levels of charcoal as carbon rich amendment on the growth and development of Corchorus capsularis. Materials and Methods: A pot experiment was carried out to study the response of jute (Corchorus capsularis) with the variety, BJRI Deshi pat -10, at the rooftop of 3 storied building in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The experiment was conducted to evaluate the impact of various rates of carbon source, such as charcoal, a potential soil amendment, on morphological features, biomass production, and root development of the mentioned Jute plant as a natural polymer or fiber crop. In the experiment, 6 treatments of charcoal were applied at the rate of control, 1g, 2g, 3g, 4g, and 5g as the treatments, T0, T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5, respectively for a period of 5 weeks. … Read more