Volume 4 Issue 2 2025 – Journal of Plant Biota

Occurrence, detection and transmission of Pseudomonas syringae pv. lachrymans from the seeds of Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) in Rajasthan

Poonam Arora¹
Dilip Kumar Sharma²

I. Introduction The cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, is a primitive vegetable that originated in India and is consumed as a cooked or salad produce. 1. It is a wide-ranging and heterogeneous family that comprises worldwide 118 genera and 825 species2, 3 and 36 genera and 100 species in India4. It is widely known as Kheera and Gherkins in the tropics, subtropics and temperate zones of India5. In India cucumber are grown as a vegetable that is used for domestic purpose and exported to other countries for foreign income. Bharatpur, Jaipur, Bikaner, Dausa, Hanumangarh, Pali, Sawai Madhopur, Sikar, Sirohi, Karauli and Dholpur are major cucumber-producing districts in Rajasthan. The disease angular spot (ALS) in cucumber was first discovered in the United States in 1913 and the pathogenic organism was identified in 1915 by Smith and Bryan. In Japan, it was first reported in 1957. In Turkey, it may cause considerable yield losses in both greenhouses and field agriculture 6,7. The crop is invaded by several fungi, bacteria, viral diseases which reduced the quantitative and quality values of the crop. ALS is caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. lachrymans (Smith & Bryan) Young, Dye & Wilkie. The complex species Pseudomonas syringae divided into 64 pathovars on the basis of pathogenic characters, and Pseudomonas syringae pv. lachrymans (PSL) is one of them8-14. Following the pathogen’s attack, the cucumber leaves developed vein-limited, water-soaked lesions with or without a chlorotic halo. Water-soaked spots on fruits that could be deformed 15-16. Angular leaf spot (ALS) is limiting its open-field production17-18. It could result in large yield reductions in both field and greenhouse crops7. Cucumber and other cucurbit producers in Turkey suffered significant harm and financial loss as a result of the disease’s proliferation-promoting climate19, 20. It caused water-soaked blisters on the leaves, which eventually turned necrotic and decreased the leaf’s ability to photosynthesize21, 22. Depending on the species’ susceptibility, ALS can cause yield losses of up to 30%–60% in fruits by reducing the ability to photosynthesis of diseased leaves 16. Once attacked by PSL on the cucumbers the yields decrease significantly, caused by reduced photosynthetic capacity of the infected foliage, and the disease is difficult to control22. In China, during 2014-2016, the disease incidence varied from 15 to 50% in different fields, causing 30–50% of yield losses14. The disease is responsible for economic losses in cucumber production worldwide9, 21. With 2.1 million hectares and 71.3 million tons produced in China, the USA, and the EU, uninfected cucumber farming is extremely important 23. The bacterium is Gram negative and KOH solubility test negative but levan and catalase are positive. It is oxidase, potato rot; nitrate reduction and arginine dihydrolase negative. The bacterium is non-fluorescent, non-hydrolyzing of starch and gelatin24. The goal of this research was to examine the transmission and detection of the disease, and this study was carried out because PSL needs appropriate detection techniques to enhance effective management strategies. Pathogen isolation and biochemical identification are the primary detection methods, although molecular approaches like rep-PCR and PMA-qPCR have been reported to be employed for PSL detection 25-27. In addition to offering quick and sensitive detection, loop-mediated isothermal amplification assays (LAMP) 28-31have been widely used for plant pathogen detection because they can be used outside of traditional laboratory settings and offer a variety of detection strategies 32. II. Materials and Methods (I) Incidence of pathogen All 102 seeds, 50 fruits samples and various infected plant parts of cucumber collected from storage houses, market and farmers field of 16 districts of Rajasthan, were brought to the laboratory to know the disease sign on various parts of plant. In order to isolate the pathogen, the seed samples and other plant components were surface sterilized and incubated under aseptic conditions on moistened blotter papers in the context of Petri plates and Nutrient Agar media. To isolate the pathogen, all of the cucumber seed samples underwent dry seed examination (DSE) and were incubated on a moistened blotter in SBM 33. The pure form of bacterial colonies were incubated at 30o C for 48 hrs, and were used for various biochemical tests viz. Gram’s staining, KOH solubility test, and LOPAT24, 34-35, and pathogenicity test24 to identify of the species of bacteria. The host plant and other plant species were used to investigate the pathogenicity of the pure bacterial isolates that were found using different techniques. The diseased fruit and other plant parts are subjected to incubate on NA media and moistened blotter papers to know the characterization of the bacterial colony i.e. shape, size, elevation, color, pigmentation, margin, and growth pattern. (ii) Disease transmission For transmission tests, two naturally infected cucumber seed samples (Lab. ac. no. CU-1412 and CU-1420) with 78 and 82% infection on the standard blotter method (SBM) and 94–100% on Kings medium B were chosen. The 100 seeds per category per sample were sowed on moist blotters (10 seeds/plate) and 1% water agar medium in test tubes (1 seed per test tube, TTSST). The seeds were then incubated at 25±2o C for 12/12 h cycles of light and darkness up to 7 and 14 days, respectively. In the pot experiment, 100 seeds per category per sample were planted in pots (two seeds per pot), and information on symptoms, seed germination percentage, and death was noted. At various phases of plant growth, the pathogen was separated from the affected portion of the plant. (iii) Pathogenicity test The bacterial isolates were artificially inoculated utilizing methods like smothering of seeds, stab inoculation of seedlings at the 3-4 leaf stage of the crop, and other plant parts. The host and other plants, such as round, bitter, bottles, and sponge gourds, were used to test the pathogenicity. Cucumber seeds that were susceptible to PSL were planted in plastic pots with sterilized soil and kept in a standard development chamber at 250°C during the day and 220°C at night. Sodium lamps were used to illuminate the pots for 16 hours17. The bacterial inoculums yielded for 24 hrs on Kings medium B (agar medium) at 280C … Read more

Influence of Light Intensity and Growing Media on the Growth and Yield of Solanecio biafrae

Kehinde-Fadare A. F.
Olajide Olubunmi
Arowosegbe Temitope

Introduction Solanecio biafrae (family Asteraceae) [1] is an underutilized indigenous leafy vegetable widely consumed in parts of West and Central Africa. In southwestern Nigeria, it is locally known as worowo, while in Sierra Leone, it is referred to as bologi. The plant is predominantly found under the shade of tree crops and is commonly cultivated beneath cocoa and oil palm plantations, where the humid, well-drained, and fertile soils favour its growth [ 2] Despite its nutritional and economic potential, cultivation of S. biafrae remains limited to small-scale production in Nigeria, Uganda, and Cameroon [2]. Its production is further constrained by environmental and agronomic challenges, leading to irregular production and threatening its availability [ 3]. The domestication and large-scale cultivation of S. biafrae is therefore crucial to ensure consistent production and to promote its utilization as a sustainable food resource. Among the factors that determine its growth performance are light intensity and growing medium. Light serves as the primary energy source for photosynthesis and is a major driver of plant growth and development. [4]. Suboptimal light conditions can limit crop performance, whereas adequate light promotes photosynthetic activity and vegetative growth. Previous research has shown that low to moderate light intensity can enhance leaf production in S. biafrae [5]. In addition to light, the choice of growing medium influences nutrient availability, root development, and overall yield, making it a key determinant of successful vegetable production. Despite these perceptions, limited research has investigated the combined effects of light intensity and growing media on the performance of S. biafrae. This study was therefore conducted to examine the influence of varying light intensities and growing media on the growth and yield of S. biafrae, with the aim of identifying optimal production conditions for sustainable cultivation. Objectives The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of different light intensities and growing media on the growth and yield of Solanecio biafrae. Specifically, the study was aimed at: 1. Assessing the individual effects of light intensity and growing media on leaf number, plant height, and fresh weight. 2. Examining the interaction between light intensity and growing media on growth and yield performance Materials and Methods Experimental Site The study was conducted at the teaching and research farm of the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ekiti State University (EKSU), Ado Ekiti, located in the southwestern region of Nigeria characterized by a humid tropical climate rainforest zone. The area experiences a bimodal rainfall pattern, with an annual average rainfall of 1,200–1,500 mm and temperatures ranging between 25°C and 30°C. The experimental period lasted for two months. Planting Material Healthy stem cuttings of Solanecio biafrae were collected from established local farms in the vicinity and were sterilized in a solution of food-grade hydrogen peroxide before planting. Experimental Design The experiment was laid out in a factorial arrangement (3 × 4) in a completely randomized design (CRD), with three replications. The factors were: Light intensity: half shade (HS; 600 flux), more intense shade (MIS; 63.6 flux), and full light (FL; 1120 flux). Growing media: rice husk + cocopeat (M1), rice husk alone (M2), biochar (M3), and topsoil (M4). Treatments and Management Shade intensities were achieved using different tree stands of diverse shades and an open field, while flux values were measured using a light meter. Growing media were prepared in equal proportions by volume. Plants were transplanted into growing bags each containing 5 kg of medium Data Collection Growth and yield parameters were recorded at 8 weeks after planting (2 months). Measurements included: Number of leaves: Plant height (cm): measured from the soil level to the apical bud. Fresh weight (g): determined by harvesting and weighing shoots immediately after collection. Statistical Analysis Data collected were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using IRRI STARS software version 2.0.1. RESULTS Effect of Light Intensity on Growth and Yield of Solanecio biafrae Light intensity significantly influenced plant growth and yield (Table 1). Plants under half shade (HS; 600 flux) produced the highest number of leaves (23.38), followed by more intense shade (MIS; 63.6 flux; 21.62), while full light (FL; 1120 flux) recorded the lowest (20.88). Plant height was greatest under MIS (35.31 cm), intermediate under HS (24.44 cm), and lowest under FL (20.69 cm). Fresh weight was similar under FL (20.77 g) and HS (20.10 g), but significantly lower under MIS (13.99 g). Effect of Growing Media on Growth and Yield Growing media also had a marked effect on plant performance (Table 1). Biochar (M3) and rice husk + cocopeat (M1) supported the highest leaf numbers (26.33 and 25.25, respectively), plant heights (32.00 and 31.33 cm), and fresh weights (21.27 g and 22.39 g). In contrast, rice husk alone (M2) and topsoil (M4) resulted in significantly fewer leaves (17.92 and 18.33), shorter plants (22.42 and 21.00 cm), and lower biomass (15.49 g and 14.00 g). Interaction of Light Intensity and Growing Media Significant interactions were observed between light intensity and media (Table 2). Under HS, biochar (HS × M3) produced the highest leaf number (31.00) and plant height (62.75 cm), while HS × M1 gave the greatest biomass (24.90 g). Under MIS, rice husk + cocopeat (MIS × M1) supported the highest leaf. Discussion The findings highlight the role of light intensity in determining the performance of S. biafrae. Moderate shading (HS) enhanced leaf production compared to FL and MIS, backing up earlier work by [ 5]. The improved performance under HS likely reflects reduced photo-inhibition and increased leaf expansion efficiency. Plant height was greatest under MIS, a typical shade-avoidance response where limited light availability induces stem elongation to maximize light capture [ 6]; however, this elongation did not translate into greater biomass, as excessive shading compromised assimilate production. Growing media also strongly influenced growth and yield. Biochar and rice husk + cocopeat consistently supported more vegetative growth, likely due to improved nutrient retention, aeration, and water-holding capacity. Similar benefits of organic substrates for vegetable production have been widely reported [7]. In contrast, rice husk alone and topsoil yielded poor growth, likely … Read more

Fungal Alchemy in Action: Scalable, Cell-Free Mycoherbicides for Sustainable Agriculture

Ajay Kumar Singh
Akhilesh Kumar Pandey

1. Introduction Weeds pose a significant threat to global agriculture by competing with crops for essential resources such as nutrients, water, and light, often thriving under adverse conditions. Their unchecked proliferation leads to reduced yields, elevated production costs, and diminished market profitability. In India and the United States alone, annual weed-related losses in major crops like soybeans and dry beans are estimated at USD 11 billion and USD 17.2 billion, respectively1, 2, 3. Chemical herbicides have long served as the primary tool for weed management, targeting critical metabolic pathways in plants. Glyphosate, the most widely used herbicide globally, inhibits 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) in the shikimic acid pathway, thereby disrupting aromatic amino acid biosynthesis4, 5. By 2019, herbicides accounted for 47.5% of the 2 million tons of pesticides used worldwide, with China, the USA, Brazil, and India among the top consumers6,7. However, excessive and indiscriminate use has led to the emergence of herbicide-resistant weed populations—particularly against glyphosate and chlorsulfuron—alongside environmental persistence and potential health risks due to their recalcitrant nature8,9,10. To counter resistance, novel synthetic herbicides have been developed, including cinmethylin (targeting acyl-ACP thioesterase), cyclopyrimorate (inhibiting homogentisate solanesyltransferase), and tetflupyrolimet (acting on dihydroorotate dehydrogenase)11,12,13. However, high genetic homology between crops and weeds complicates target specificity, raising concerns about crop safety and unintended phytotoxicity14,15 As a sustainable alternative, bioherbicides—biological agents derived from plants, bacteria, fungi, or viruses—have gained increasing attention16,17. Fungi, in particular, are favored for industrial-scale production due to their host specificity, potent bioactivity, and environmentally benign profiles18,19 . Additionally, bioherbicides offer lower discovery and development costs compared to synthetic herbicides, with relatively fewer regulatory hurdles. Nonetheless, commercial adoption remains constrained by challenges in efficacy, formulation stability, and regulatory compliance20,21,22 Recent research underscores the potential of cell-free phytotoxic fungal metabolites to enhance weed suppression while reducing environmental persistence and off-target effects 23,24,25,26,27. Moreover, the use of industrial residues as fermentation substrates supports cost-effective production and aligns with circular economy principles. This review critically evaluates the current landscape of fungal herbicides, with a particular focus on cell-free phytotoxic metabolites as scalable, sustainable solutions for weed management. It also examines commercially available fungal products and identifies key scientific and industrial barriers to market success. The novelty lies in bridging cutting-edge scientific innovation with industrial feasibility to chart a path toward commercially viable bioherbicidal technologies. 2. Production Strategies for Fungal-Based Herbicides Derived from Metabolite Extracts The development of fungal herbicides typically involves two core stages: the first stage is screening and isolation of microorganisms with phytotoxic activity, and the second stage is large-scale cultivation for formulation and application. However, when targeting cell-free metabolites, additional steps are required—particularly the extraction and purification of bioactive compounds—depending on their chemical nature, which may simplify or complicate downstream processing. The first phase, Isolation and Screening, begins with identifying dominant weed species in the target environment and evaluating the chemical herbicides currently used for their control to understand potential resistance mechanisms. Fungal candidates are then isolated either from infected weed tissues or from rhizospheric soils where weed-crop interactions are evident28,29,30. Alternatively, reference strains from established fungal culture banks may be utilized. These isolates are screened using Petri dish assays with weed seeds, assessing phytotoxic responses such as inhibition of germination, reduction in shoot and root growth, and other indicators of herbicidal activity. The second phase of bioherbicide development involves selecting the most promising microbial strains and subjecting them to metabolite characterization. This step is critical for elucidating the bioherbicide’s mode of action (MOA). Advanced analytical tools such as mass spectrometry and computational techniques like molecular docking are commonly employed for profiling and identifying active phytotoxic compounds. In the third phase, the focus shifts to evaluating the mycoherbicide’s efficacy and target spectrum across various weed species. This assessment can be conducted using both isolated metabolites and whole fungal cultures. Greenhouse trials are recommended to simulate natural conditions and generate ecologically relevant data. Toxicity and ecotoxicity assays are also essential, particularly on crop species related to the target weeds, to determine selectivity and minimize off-target effects. Once efficacy and selectivity are confirmed, the production process is optimized to enhance metabolite yield. This involves adjusting fermentation parameters based on recent literature and experimental data. The resulting product is then formulated and subjected to further testing to validate its performance across a broader weed spectrum and its safety profile for crops31,32 The fourth and final phase involves scaling up production through fermentation, followed by purification of the active metabolites for field trials. Successful field validation paves the way for product registration, patenting, and commercialization. 2.1 Production Dynamics and Strategic Optimization Fermentation is a pivotal stage in mycoherbicide production, directly influencing yield and cost-efficiency. Currently, one of the major limitations of biological herbicides is their higher production cost compared to chemical alternatives. A techno-economic analysis by Mupondwa estimated that a facility with two 33,000 L fermenters producing 3,602 tons annually would require a capital investment of USD 17.55 million and incur annual operating costs of USD 14.76 million. Despite this, the payback period is under one year, with a net present value (NPV) of 7%, indicating commercial viability. To further enhance cost-effectiveness in microbial bioherbicide production, several strategies can be implemented, including the use of agro-industrial residues as alternative carbon and nitrogen sources to reduce raw material costs and promote circular economy principles33,34,35; optimization of fermentation processes through statistical tools such as response surface methodology; deployment of microbial consortia to broaden the spectrum of target weed species; and careful selection of fermenter types and operational modes aligned with the metabolic profile and growth kinetics of the producing organism10,36,37. Collectively, these approaches improve production efficiency and economic viability, thereby supporting the wider adoption of microbial bioherbicides in sustainable agriculture. 2.1.1. Preliminary Process Development The upstream development of microbial bioherbicides based on cell-free metabolites begins with the selection of pre-characterized microbial strains from established culture banks. These strains must demonstrate high efficacy in controlling one or more target weed species, as validated through greenhouse or field trials. Optimizing fermentation conditions—including nutritional, chemical, physical, and biological … Read more

Microbiome of centenary trees growing around historical monuments

S. F. Abdulloeva¹
S. S. Fayzullayev¹
B. I. Turaeva²

Introduction Trees are one of the main components of the Earth’s biosphere and play an essential role in maintaining ecosystem structure, stability, and biodiversity [1]. They provide important ecosystem services such as nutrient retention and water filtration [2]. In parks, recreational areas, and historical sites, trees are valued for their health benefits and aesthetic importance. Ancient trees, being physiologically active throughout the year, play a significant role in enriching the atmosphere with oxygen through photosynthesis [3]. The tree microbiome consists of microorganisms (bacteria and micromycetes) inhabiting the roots, stems, and leaves, along with their genetic material. Some microorganisms enhance the physiological processes of trees and increase their resilience to environmental stresses such as drought and extreme temperature [4]. The composition of the microbiome is influenced by factors such as tree age, soil properties, climate, and humidity [5]. In recent decades, infections of ancient and ornamental trees by various phytopathogenic microorganisms have been increasing due to adverse climatic and abiotic factors [6]. This not only poses a threat to trees but also contributes to the rise of allergic diseases in humans, thus representing a serious environmental risk [7]. Pathogenic microorganisms alter plant physiology and metabolism, leading to diseases. They may exist on plant surfaces as epiphytes or within tissues as endophytes, occupying intercellular spaces [8]. Endophytic and epiphytic microorganisms can be either beneficial and symbiotic or phytopathogenic, causing plant diseases [9]. Endophytic microorganisms include diverse ecological groups such as root and soil endophytes [10]. Some endophytes may shift between mutualistic and latent pathogenic stages during their life cycle [11, 12]. Therefore, endophytes exhibit multiple functional characteristics at different life stages. The use of antagonistic endophytic microorganisms is one of the most effective biological control strategies against plant pathogens [13, 14]. Endophytes are also promising sources for developing biological preparations and bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, cytochalasins, polyketides, terpenoids, flavonoids, and steroids [15–17]. These substances have great potential for application in medicine, agriculture, and industry. Considering the vast plant diversity worldwide, endophytic micromycetes are a valuable source for discovering new natural biological control agents [18]. Microorganisms are dispersed through soil, water, air, and various anthropogenic factors. When soil conditions change, saprophytic microorganisms can multiply rapidly [19]. The phytopathogenic micromycete Rhizoctonia solani, which causes various plant diseases, was isolated and its morphological characteristics studied. In laboratory conditions, the pathogenic properties of most isolated phytopathogenic microorganisms were confirmed [20]. Soil microbial populations often include bacterial genera such as Pseudomonas, Bacillus, and Pasteuria, which have strong potential for biological control of nematode populations [21]. Promising results were also obtained from experiments using biological control agents against Pantoea agglomerans, the causal agent of fire blight. Following these studies, the mechanisms of antagonist activity were examined in detail [22]. To develop effective biological control methods and create environmentally friendly biological agents, it is necessary to isolate antifungal and antibacterial antagonist strains from ancient trees [23]. However, current research on endophytic microorganisms remains limited, leading to the spread of diseases caused by them. Therefore, studying the diversity of endophytic and epiphytic microorganisms and their potential effects on tree species and human health is of great scientific importance. Research Area and Methods The research was conducted in the area surrounding the Ulugbek Observatory and Sherdor Madrasah in Samarkand, Uzbekistan. The Ulugbek Observatory, built in 1428–1429 on Choponota Hill near the Obirakhmat stream, is one of the rare examples of 15th-century architecture. Around the observatory, ancient plane trees (Platanus orientalis) are found. The Sherdor Madrasah, located on Registan Square, dates to the 17th century and was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2001. Around this monument grows an ancient Juniperus virginiana (Virginia juniper), also known as pencil cedar, which was planted in 1873 and is notable for its evergreen foliage. Plant samples were collected aseptically from the bark, branches, leaves, flowers, and immature fruits of several ancient trees near these monuments — including Pinus nigra, Picea pungens Engelm., Pinus eldarica Medw., Aesculus sp., and Morus sp. (near the Ulugbek Observatory), and Thuja orientalis, Juniperus virginiana, Pinus sylvestris, Juniperus sp.1, and Morus sp. (around the Sherdor Madrasah). Samples were taken from a total of six trees near the Ulugbek Observatory and eight trees near the Sherdor Madrasah. A seasonal study revealed that microbial activity was highest in spring, while lower levels were observed in summer and autumn. In the laboratory, all procedures were performed in a biological safety cabinet (BSC-1300IIA2-X). To isolate epiphytic microorganisms, plant material was first treated with 3% hydrogen peroxide for 15 minutes and then rinsed ten times with sterile distilled water. Small tissue sections were excised using sterilized scalpels and tweezers and inoculated onto potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates. To isolate endophytic microorganisms, plant samples were covered with sterile quartz sand in porcelain dishes and inoculated into PDA medium. The inoculated samples were incubated at temperatures ranging from 20°C to 36°C (Figure 1) Figure 1. Samples taken from the Ulugbek Observatory and Sherdor Madrasah and colonies of microorganisms that developed in the samples. From the 2nd day of the study, the formation, that is, the development of bacterial and micromycete colonies was observed in the samples planted. Data analysis: The results obtained were identified using generally accepted methods in microbiology, genetic and MALDI-TOF MS methods. Pure isolates were isolated by re-sowing microorganisms on nutrient media (Figure 2). When studying the developed microflora from samples taken from trees, the samples obtained were incubated on the above nutrient media for 6-7 days. To isolate pure cultures from the samples, the generally accepted method of re-sowing on PDA nutrient media was used. In the next stage of the study, studies were conducted on the isolation of pure cultures from the colonies of microorganisms that developed in the samples. Figure 2. Results of the study conducted in laboratory conditions. A-Bacterial isolates isolated from samples taken from Sherdor madrasah; B-micromecit isolates; C-Bacterial isolates isolated from samples taken from Ulugbek Observatory; D-micromecit isolates; In order to identify the types of pure isolates, the morphological characteristics of the microorganisms were examined. … Read more

Spatial Assessment of Carbon Sequestration Dynamics in Southern Guinea Savannah Agro-Ecological Zone of Taraba State, Nigeria

Shamaki Rimamnyang Ayina¹
Oruonye, E.D¹
Benjamin Ezekiel Bwadi¹
Hassan Musa²

Introduction Climate change, driven primarily by increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, remains one of the most pressing environmental challenges of the twenty-first century [1]. Terrestrial ecosystems play a crucial role in mitigating climate change by sequestering carbon in both biomass and soil organic matter. Savannah ecosystems, in particular, are dynamic landscapes that act as either carbon sinks or sources depending upon land use, climatic variability, and management practices. Nigeria’s Guinea Savannah, which forms a broad transitional belt between the humid forest in the south and the drier Sudan and Sahel savannahs in the north, is a significant ecological zone where pressures of agriculture, grazing, and settlement intersect with climate dynamics to influence carbon sequestration potential [2]. The Southern Guinea Savannah (SGS) agro-ecological zone is characterized by relatively high rainfall lasting six to eight months, tall grasses interspersed with trees, and soils that, although fertile, are vulnerable to degradation if unsustainably managed [3]. Taraba State lies across multiple ecological zones, including the Southern and Northern Guinea Savannahs and the Montane Forest, giving it diverse topography, rainfall distribution, and vegetation patterns that influence carbon sequestration dynamics. Recent climate analyses in Taraba State reveal significant changes in precipitation and temperature that directly affect the carbon balance of the landscape. Asa and Zemba [4] found that annual rainfall ranged from 733 mm to 2238 mm across different stations in southern Taraba, with rainy days spanning between 164 and 262 days. Importantly, the onset of rainfall has shifted later in the past decade, while mean temperatures exhibit a consistent upward trend across all stations, suggesting increasing evapotranspiration and moisture stress [4]. Complementary findings by the Global Journal of Science Frontier Research indicate rising temperatures across most stations in Taraba, except for Gembu in the highlands, and evidence of delayed rainfall onset in many areas, with a general shortening of the rainy season length. These climatic changes reduce vegetation productivity, alter biomass growth, and accelerate soil organic carbon decomposition, thereby weakening the ecosystem’s ability to function as a net carbon sink. In parallel, remote sensing and land use/land cover studies have highlighted rapid forest degradation and vegetation loss in Taraba State. Ojeh et al [5] documented significant declines in forest cover in the Kurmi Local Government Area between 1999 and 2019, with corresponding increases in bare land and built-up areas. Abba et al [6] reported that thick forest cover in the central part of Taraba declined dramatically from over 80% in 2006 to much lower levels by 2018, largely replaced by fragmented vegetation and bare surfaces. Similarly, Musa, Saddiq, and Abubakar [7] found marked vegetation loss in Gashaka Gumti National Park, even within protected zones, due to encroachment and anthropogenic pressures. Such land cover transitions reduce aboveground biomass carbon stocks, diminish litter input into soils, and exacerbate soil organic carbon depletion. At the same time, empirical studies in Taraba and other parts of Nigeria have revealed both the potential and vulnerability of carbon sequestration in savannah ecosystems. Yani, Yekini, and Dishan [8] assessed aboveground, belowground, and soil carbon stocks across three ecological zones in Taraba and found that Montane Forest reserves had significantly higher sequestration potential than Guinea Savannah zones, underscoring the ecological gradient in carbon storage. Lawal [9] showed that conservation tillage and cover crops in the Northern Guinea Savannah improved soil organic carbon pools, pointing to management as a key determinant of sequestration capacity. Danjuma [3] further demonstrated that land use type and soil depth significantly influence carbon stocks in Katsina’s Guinea Savannah, with croplands and degraded lands storing far less carbon than forest or fallow land. Despite these insights, major knowledge gaps remain. Most existing studies provide static carbon stock estimates without examining the temporal dynamics of sequestration across decades of land use change and climatic variation. In addition, spatial heterogeneity in carbon sequestration across soils, vegetation types, and land use mosaics of Taraba’s Southern Guinea Savannah remains poorly mapped. Furthermore, while several localized soil fertility and land degradation studies have been undertaken in Taraba [10], few have systematically integrated climate trend data with land cover change and carbon sequestration potential. This creates a serious research gap, as the Southern Guinea Savannah in Taraba is undergoing rapid transformation through deforestation, agricultural expansion, and unsustainable exploitation, yet its carbon sequestration potential and changing role in climate regulation remain underexplored. Therefore, this study undertakes a spatially explicit assessment of carbon sequestration dynamics in the Southern Guinea Savannah agro-ecological zone of Taraba State. By integrating spatial analysis of land cover change with carbon stock estimation and climatic trends, the research provides crucial evidence of how one of Nigeria’s most important ecological zones is shifting from a carbon sink towards a potential carbon source. This linkage highlights the urgency of sustainable land management, forest conservation, and policy interventions that can mitigate further carbon losses while enhancing the adaptive capacity of local ecosystems and communities. In doing so, the study directly addresses a pressing research problem: the lack of spatially and temporally grounded data on carbon sequestration dynamics in Taraba’s Southern Guinea Savannah, which is vital for both national climate commitments and global mitigation strategies. Description of the Study Area The study was conducted in the Southern Guinea Savannah agro-ecological zone of Taraba State, Nigeria. This zone occupies the southern part of the state and encompasses the Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Wukari, Donga, Takum, Kurmi, Bali, Gashaka, and Sardauna. Geographically, it lies between latitudes 6°30′N and 8°30′N and longitudes 10°00′E and 11°30′E, covering an estimated area of approximately 25,120 km² [11, 12]. The region experiences a tropical wet-and-dry climate with two distinct seasons: a wet season (April–October) and a dry season (November–March). Annual rainfall ranges between 1,200 mm and 1,800 mm, with mean annual temperatures varying from 25°C to 32°C. These climatic conditions support the Guinea Savannah vegetation, characterized by grasslands interspersed with shrubs, scattered trees, and gallery forests along rivers [4, 13]. The topography varies from low-lying plains in the west to rugged highlands in the east, particularly in Sardauna … Read more

Medicinal Plant Diversity and Traditional Knowledge Among Ethnic Groups in Burkina Faso Central-West Region

Dramane Kabore
Adama Rama
Renan Ernest Traore

Introduction Medicinal plants constitute a cornerstone of traditional healthcare systems globally, particularly in developing countries where access to modern medical services remains limited [1]. In sub-Saharan Africa, approximately 80% of rural populations continue to rely on plant-based resources for disease prevention and treatment [2] [3]. Beyond their therapeutic value, these plants represent a significant component of cultural heritage, transmitted orally across generations [4]. In Burkina Faso, traditional medicine is largely grounded in the use of a diverse array of medicinal plant species [5]. However, anthropogenic pressures, deforestation, declining plant biodiversity, and the globalization of lifestyles are accelerating the erosion of this ancestral knowledge [6] [7]. In this context, the documentation and valorization of local ethnobotanical knowledge are critical for both the conservation of medicinal plant species and the intergenerational transmission of traditional practices [8]. The Central-West region of Burkina Faso, characterized by rich floristic diversity and a long-standing tradition of medicinal plant use, remains insufficiently studied from an ethnobotanical perspective [9]. Recording the species employed and the associated knowledge is essential not only for biodiversity conservation but also for supporting the integration of traditional pharmacopoeia into local healthcare strategies [1] [3]. This study aims to inventory the medicinal plant species used in the Central-West region of Burkina Faso and to analyze the diversity and therapeutic applications of these taxa. Materials and Methods Study Area and Surveyed Population The survey was conducted in 30 villages located within the Boulkiemdé and Sanguié provinces, in the Central-West region of Burkina Faso (Figure 1). These sites were selected based on criteria such as accessibility, ethnic diversity, and their recognized role in the transmission of traditional knowledge related to medicinal plant use. The participants included a wide range of individuals, primarily traditional healers, herbalists, folk medicine practitioners, and elderly persons acknowledged for their expertise in traditional pharmacopoeia. Data Collection Data were collected using three complementary methods: semi-structured interviews, direct observations, and botanical specimen collection. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with traditional healers, herbalists, and other local knowledge holders. An interview guide was used to gather information on the medicinal plant species used, plant parts utilized, preparation methods, treated ailments, and conservation practices. Direct observations were carried out at collection sites, in local markets, and within households to document actual practices related to the use and management of medicinal plants. Specimen collection was conducted with the assistance of informants. Plant samples were harvested, pressed, and transported to the laboratory for identification. The identification process was based on regional floras and standard reference works [10] [11]. Data Analysis Statistical Analysis All statistical and graphical analyses were performed using RStudio version 4.5.1, according to the requirements for processing, structuring, and visualizing the ethnobotanical survey data. Absolute and relative frequencies were calculated to describe the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. The Use Value (UV) of each plant species was computed following the formula proposed by [12]: Ui represents the number of use reports mentioned by informant i, and N is the total number of informants. This index serves to assess the relative importance of a plant species within traditional medicinal practices. In addition, the Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) was calculated to measure the proportion of informants who cited each species, using the formula: FC is the number of citations for a given species, and N is the total number of participants. To explore the diversity of dosage types and administration times associated with the therapeutic uses of plants, heatmaps were generated based on binary or frequency-weighted occurrence matrices. Finally, the integrated structure of traditional therapeutic knowledge was visualized using a circular network diagram (chord diagram), linking plant species, ethnic groups, preparation methods, and types of treated ailments. This graphical representation illustrates the density of interconnections within the traditional medicinal system and highlights the central species in the network of ethnomedical knowledge. Results Socio-demographic Characteristics of Respondents Data analysis highlights two key aspects of the respondents’ profiles: age and educational level. Regarding age distribution, the majority of participants, representing 67%, were aged 50 years and above, while 33% were under 50 years. This demographic structure indicates a strong representation of elderly individuals within the sample. Concerning educational attainment, a large proportion of respondents (72.1%) had no formal schooling. Only 18.9% reached the primary education level, and 9% attained secondary education. This low level of education reflects a generally limited educational context among the majority of participants (Table 1). Use Value of the Studied Plant Species The most utilized species is Euphorbia hirta, which recorded the highest use value (UV = 0.737). This high score reflects both a significant frequency of use and a notable diversity of applications reported by informants. A group of species exhibited intermediate use values, with a UV of 0.368. These include Ximenia americana, Vitex cuneata, Spondias mombin, Detarium microcarpum, and Acacia macrostachya. These plants are also well established in the local pharmacopoeia, suggesting their recognized utility in traditional practices. Other species fall within a moderate use value category, with UVs ranging from 0.274 to 0.342. Among these are Guiera senegalensis, Combretum paniculatum, Diospyros mespiliformis, Terminalia avicennioides, and Nauclea latifolia. Finally, the least cited species are Gardenia erubescens, with a UV of 0.221, and Piliostigma thonningii, which has the lowest use value in the studied panel (UV = 0.132), indicating a lesser importance in the reported medicinal uses (Figure 2). Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) of the Studied Species The graph presents the relative frequency of citation (RFC) of various medicinal plant species, an indicator measuring the importance and frequency of use of each plant within traditional medicine practices. Euphorbia hirta is the most cited species with an RFC of 0.15. This high value reflects its central importance in ethnobotanical knowledge and suggests widespread use in treating diverse ailments. Diospyros mespiliformis ranks second with an RFC of 0.10, also indicating significant recognition in local medicinal applications. A group of ten species shows intermediate RFC values, each around 0.07. These include Ximenia americana, Vitex cuneata, Spondias mombin, Detarium microcarpum, Acacia macrostachya, Terminalia avicennioides, Nauclea latifolia, Guiera senegalensis, … Read more

Optimized Water-Agar Assay for Tomato Seed Vigor Enables High-Fidelity Plant Growth Regulator Screening

Mahesh R. Ghule¹
Monika C. Narayankar²
Priti B. Panchal²
Kirti T. Kamthe³
Adwait K. Kamthe¹
Sunita S. Sakure²

Introduction Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), a member of the Solanaceae family, is one of the world’s most important vegetable crops, valued for its economic, nutritional, and scientific significance. Originating in western South America, tomato cultivation has expanded globally and today ranks as the second most produced vegetable after potato by volume [1, 2, 3]. In 2022, global tomato production reached ~186.8 million metric tons across 5 million hectares, underpinning a multi-billion-dollar industry that spans fresh produce and processed products such as sauces and pastes [4]. Nutritionally, tomatoes are low in calories but rich in vitamins A, C, and K, minerals, dietary fiber, and phytochemicals, most notably lycopene. Lycopene is a potent antioxidant linked to reduced risks of cardiovascular diseases and several cancers [5, 6, 7, 8]. This combination of agricultural, economic, nutritional, and health value has also made tomato a model organism for studies in genetics, physiology, and biotechnology [1, 9]. Successful and uniform crop establishment begins with seed quality. While viability defines the inherent ability of a seed to germinate, vigor is a superior predictor of performance under diverse and stressful field conditions [10, 11]. Seed vigor is characterized by rapid, uniform germination and robust seedling development. Standard germination tests (SGTs), such as those prescribed by ISTA and AOSA, measure maximum germination potential under optimal conditions [12]. However, these conditions rarely reflect field realities, and SGTs often overestimate emergence capacity. Even weak or damaged seeds may germinate in the laboratory yet fail in the field [10, 13]. To bridge this gap, seed vigor testing has become an essential component of seed quality assessment [14, 15]. For tomato, high vigor is critical for field establishment and yield uniformity [16]. The rolled paper towel (PT) method is widely used for SGTs due to its low cost and simplicity. However, it presents limitations for vigor testing and sensitive applications such as plant growth regulator (PGR) screening. Moisture regulation in PT is inconsistent: excessive wetness can create anaerobic conditions leading to seed rot, while drying can arrest germination. In addition, seedling radicles often entangle within the paper matrix, causing damage during measurement and increasing variability [17, 18]. The opaque, rolled setup further prevents real-time observation of germination. Studies have shown that agar-based substrates generate more uniform seedlings than paper or sand [19]. Water-agar (WA), a sterile, semi-solid, nutrient-free medium, provides several advantages. It offers stable and uniform moisture, prevents substrate entanglement, and allows continuous, non-invasive observation of germination. However, agar concentration critically influences water potential and gel firmness. Higher agar concentrations reduce water availability by lowering matric potential, imposing resistance to root penetration and creating physiological drought [20, 21]. Conversely, excessively low concentrations may cause free water release or hypoxia [22]. Hydrothermal modeling further confirms that water × temperature interactions strongly regulate germination dynamics [23, 24]. Thus, optimizing agar concentration is essential for accurate assessment of seed vigor. This study aimed to (1) optimize agar concentration for tomato seed germination and vigor, and (2) compare the optimized WA method with the PT method for high-fidelity screening of tomato seed responses to two PGRs indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and gibberellic acid (GA₃). Materials and Methods Plant Material and Sterilization Seeds of tomato (S. lycopersicum cv. Seminis Abhilash, Bayer Crop Science, India) were used. Seeds were stored at 4 °C in airtight containers. For sterilization, seeds were immersed in 70% ethanol for 1 min, followed by 1.5% sodium hypochlorite with Tween-20 for 10 min, and rinsed five times with sterile distilled water. Experiment 1: Optimization of WA Concentration A completely randomized design (CRD) tested six substrates: sterile distilled water (0% agar) and agar concentrations of 0.13, 0.25, 0.50, 1.0, and 2.0% (w/v). Agar (HiMedia, India) was autoclaved (121 °C, 20 min) and poured into sterile 6-well plates (10 mL/well). After solidification, 10 sterilized seeds were placed per well (100 seeds/treatment). For 0% agar, 10 mL sterile water was used. Plates were sealed with Parafilm, incubated at 25 ± 2 °C under a 16 h dark/8 h light regime (ISTA protocol) [12]. Experiment 2: Comparative Analysis of WA vs. PT for PGR Screening A factorial CRD design compared WA (0.5% agar, from Experiment 1) with PT across six concentrations each of IBA (0, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200 mg/L) and GA₃ (0, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800 mg/L) [25, 26, 27]. WA method: PGRs were filter-sterilized and incorporated into molten 0.5% agar. Ten mL medium was dispensed per well, with 10 seeds/well. PT method: Two sterile germination papers were moistened with PGR solution, seeds placed, rolled, and enclosed in polyethylene bags. Each treatment had 10 replicates (100 seeds). Incubation conditions were as in Experiment 1. Data Collection In Experiment 1, germination was recorded daily for 14 days. A seed was considered germinated when radicle length ≥2 mm [12]. Final germination %, mean germination time (MGT), shoot/root length, seedling length, seedling vigor index (SVI = germination % × mean seedling length), fresh weight, dry weight, and biomass gain were recorded. In Experiment 2, germination was assessed on day 7. Shoot and root length, SVI, and qualitative differences between WA and PT seedlings were recorded. Coefficients of variation (CV) for shoot/root length were calculated. Statistical Analysis Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA (Experiment 1) and two-way ANOVA (Experiment 2) with Tukey’s HSD test (P ≤ 0.05). Data normality and homogeneity were verified; no transformation was required. Analyses were performed using R v4.1.2. Results and Discussion Water-Agar Concentration Optimization for Seed Vigor WA substrates consistently outperformed the water-only control, which was limited by hypoxic stress. The 0.5% WA medium proved optimal, achieving 95% germination and the highest vigor index, consistent with earlier reports on tomato seed vigor under controlled water potential [11,24,29,31]. In the water-only treatment (0% WA), germination was significantly lower and slower than in any agar-containing medium (Table 1). After 14 days, the control reached only ~62% germination, compared with 82–95% across WA treatments. Seeds germinated in water required considerably more time (MGT ≈ 6.3 days) and produced weak seedlings averaging ~23 mm in total length, which … Read more

An Assessment of Rural Households Perception of Climate Change in Taraba State, Nigeria

Oruonye, E.D.¹
Ojeh Vincent Nduka¹
Linda Sylvanus Bako¹
Ezra, A.²

Introduction Climate change represents one of the most pressing global challenges of the 21st century, affecting the environment, economies, and societies in multifaceted ways. Its impacts are disproportionately felt in developing regions, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where livelihoods are largely dependent on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture and forestry [1]. Nigeria, as Africa’s most populous nation, faces significant climate-related risks including rising temperatures, irregular rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and increasing incidences of flooding. These changes threaten food security, water availability, and health, particularly in rural areas where adaptive capacity is generally low [2]. Taraba State, located in the northeastern region of Nigeria, exhibits a diverse agro-ecological landscape comprising the Sudan Savannah, Northern Guinea Savannah, Southern Guinea Savannah, and Montane zones. These zones are home to numerous rural communities whose livelihoods are intricately tied to natural systems. Consequently, any alteration in the climate system has profound implications for their socio-economic well-being. Despite the evident impacts of climate change, understanding how rural populations perceive these changes remains limited. This knowledge gap is critical because perception influences response and adaptation strategies at the community level [3]. Perceptions of climate change among rural populations are shaped by various factors including ecological location, cultural beliefs, religious orientation, and direct environmental experiences. In some rural Nigerian contexts, changes in climate are not solely attributed to scientific or physical causes but are often linked to spiritual or moral explanations such as divine punishment for societal wrongdoing [4]. Understanding these perceptions is essential for designing context-specific climate change communication and adaptation strategies that are both culturally sensitive and scientifically sound. Although several studies have examined the physical manifestations of climate change in Nigeria, few have focused on local perception, especially in ecologically diverse states such as Taraba. Assessing rural households’ perception is not only important for enhancing scientific knowledge but also for informing policy and grassroots action plans aimed at building resilience to climate shocks. Perception studies can help identify knowledge gaps, promote behavior change, and improve the targeting of adaptation interventions [5]. This study, therefore, seeks to assess rural households’ perception of climate change in Taraba State, Nigeria. It aims to explore how rural residents interpret the causes of climate change, the extent to which their perceptions differ across agro-ecological zones, and the socio-cultural and environmental factors influencing these perceptions. By doing so, the study contributes to a deeper understanding of local environmental cognition and supports the development of tailored climate adaptation policies. Statement of the Research Problem Climate change continues to pose an existential threat to global development, with its impacts disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations, especially in rural and ecologically diverse regions of sub-Saharan Africa. In Nigeria, where over 70% of the population depends on climate-sensitive activities such as agriculture and natural resource extraction, the rural populace remains at the frontline of these environmental challenges [2]. Taraba State, characterized by complex agro-ecological zones and a largely rural demographic, is particularly vulnerable due to its dependence on rain-fed agriculture, extensive deforestation, and low adaptive capacity. Despite increasing scientific evidence and global awareness of climate change, there remains a significant gap in understanding how rural communities in Nigeria, particularly in Taraba State, perceive the phenomenon. Perception is a key determinant of climate response; it shapes risk appraisal, decision-making, and local adaptation strategies [3, 5]. However, rural perceptions are often influenced not only by direct environmental experiences but also by cultural, religious, and social interpretations. For instance, earlier findings suggest that some rural households in Taraba State attribute climate change to spiritual causes such as divine punishment rather than scientific explanations such as greenhouse gas emissions or land use change [4, 6]. This divergence in perception may result in limited acceptance or misalignment with formal climate change communication and mitigation initiatives. Moreover, variation in perception across ecological zones may further complicate policy formulation and implementation. Without a clear understanding of how rural households interpret climate change and its causes, efforts to promote adaptation and resilience-building at the community level risk being ineffective or culturally inappropriate [1]. While existing studies in Nigeria have predominantly focused on the biophysical impacts of climate change or macro-level vulnerability assessments, little empirical research has been conducted to capture the nuanced, localized perceptions of rural households in Taraba State. There is, therefore, a compelling need to examine these perceptions systematically, identify their socio-cultural and ecological drivers, and assess the extent to which they align with scientific understanding. This study addresses this critical gap by assessing rural households’ perception of climate change across the four agro-ecological zones of Taraba State. It provides evidence-based insights necessary for designing culturally sensitive and geographically targeted climate adaptation policies and education programs. Description of the Study Area Taraba State, located in the northeastern region of Nigeria, lies between latitudes 6°30′N and 9°36′N and longitudes 9°10′E and 11°50′E (Fig. 1). It shares international boundaries with the Republic of Cameroon to the east and national boundaries with Bauchi, Gombe, Adamawa, Benue, Nassarawa, and Plateau States. With a land area of approximately 54,473 square kilometers, it ranks among the largest states in Nigeria by landmass [7]. Taraba State exhibits diverse topographical and ecological characteristics shaped by its position on the windward side of the Cameroon Highlands. The state’s landscape ranges from low-lying plains in the north to high-altitude mountainous terrains in the southeast, notably in the Mambilla Plateau region which rises to over 1,800 meters above sea level. This ecological variability contributes to its classification into four major agro-ecological zones: the Sudan Savannah, Northern Guinea Savannah, Southern Guinea Savannah, and the Montane zone. These ecological zones influence not only the state’s biodiversity and agricultural productivity but also how communities experience and respond to climate-related changes. For instance, the Montane zone experiences cooler temperatures and higher rainfall, while the Sudan Savannah in the north is drier and more prone to desertification and drought. The state experiences a tropical climate, with two distinct seasons: the rainy season (April to October) and the dry season (November to March). Annual rainfall varies between 800 mm in … Read more

Response of wheat plants (Tritium astrium L.) to NPK Nano fertilizer under saline soil conditions in Nineveh Governorate

Hind Awad Sabbar
Khalid Ekhlayef N. Alhadidi
Rana Saadallah Aziz

Introduction Wheat is an essential source for the production of bread in many countries of the world. It is also considered an important source of proteins, calories, fats, vitamins, and mineral salts [11]. Wheat protein contains approximately 35% gluten, which helps in producing good types of bread compared to the resulting of bread. Among other grain crops, the wheat crop is also used in the production of some medicines, while wheat waste is used as animal feed. Because of the importance of the wheat crop and its nutritional role, it is called the king of grains , Nano fertilizer technology is one of the recent discoveries that provides solutions to many problems in the agricultural field [15]. Nano refers to a unit of measurement that denotes one billionth (10-9) of a meter. Nanotechnology means the technology of extremely small materials. Or microscopic technology. Scientists and engineers deal with matter at this scale at the level of atoms and Nanoparticles [25]. The Nano unit is used to measure microscopic particles, atoms, and diameter dimensions [2]. The difference in the behavior of Nanomaterials is due to two basic factors: The first factor is the increase in area. The surface area of the material, which will lead to an increase in the specific surface area, so the interaction of the material increases, and then its chemical activity becomes higher [8]. The second factor is the quantitative effects in these Nanomaterials, and because of their small dimensions, they are not subject to the laws of classical physics, but they are subject to the laws of quantum physics, so they affect… in their properties, which is reflected in the optical, electrical, magnetic and mechanical behavior of materials [14]. Salinization is the process of gathering or accumulating dissolved salts to a degree exceeding their natural rates in the soil. The cause of salinization may be natural or due to conditions resulting from poor management processes [6]. Saline soils are characterized by chemical, physical, biological, and morphological characteristics different from non-saline soils. They are also characterized by a predominance of Certain types of cations and anions [19]. The area of land affected by salts reached (340 million hectares) at the global level, while the area of sodic lands reached (560 million hectares). Salinity, in addition to the osmotic effect, is an ionic effect that is often associated with high levels of sodium to potassium (K+ /Na+) and sodium to calcium ( Ca++ /Na+), magnesium to calcium (Ca++ /Mg++), and chloride to nitrate (NO3 / Cl-), which means the accumulation of both sodium and chloride in the plant tissue in addition to the soil, which affect water stress and cause the absorption of the main nutrients to be affected. Interactions, ionic competition, or influence the integrity of the cell membrane [27]. Sodium competes with potassium, calcium, and magnesium, in addition to manganese, and reduces the amount available to the plant or replaces the calcium ion in the binding sites in the cytoplasmic membranes, which negatively affects their selective property, while chloride restricts the absorption of nitrates and phosphates in addition to sulfates [20]. Materials and Methods Collecting soil samples and preparing them for study: Three sites were chosen from Nineveh Governorate within the (Tel Abta) area due to the importance of these sites from an agricultural standpoint as they are grown with grain crops and irrigated supple mentally depending on the difference (rainfall range, vegetation cover, variation in salt distribution). Excited samples were taken at a depth of (0 – 30) cm. On 10/5/2023 from the study sites, Table (3), samples were taken to prepare them for cultivation for analyzes and laboratory studies according to the methods mentioned in [22]. Chemical and physical analyses The soil extract (1:1) was used to estimate dissolved ions. The electrical conductivity (EC) and the degree of soil reaction (pH) were measured using the WTW Multi 4001 device [20]. Calcium and magnesium were calibrated with (0.01N) of ferricin (EDTA di -Na) [20], I use a Shewood model 410 flame photometer to measure both sodium and potassium in the soil extract after adjusting the device with standard solutions and based on [26], carbonates and bicarbonates by calibration with (0.01N). Of sulfuric acid and using the phenolphthalein index to estimate carbonates and the methyl orange index in the case of bicarbonate. Chlorides were estimated by titration with (0.01N) of silver nitrate (AgNO3 [26]. Sulfates were calculated from the difference between the sum of dissolved positive ion equivalents and dissolved negative ion equivalents [22], organic matter was estimated by the wet oxidation method using potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) [20], total carbonates (lime) were estimated by titration method with hydrochloric acid at a concentration of (1M) phenolnaphthalene index [10], it was Gypsum was estimated by the acetone precipitation method according to the method used by [18]. The hydrometer method was used to estimate soil separations of clay, silt, and sand, according to what was mentioned by [13]. The bulk density was estimated by the paraffin wax method [17]. Implementation of the experiment Plastic pots with a diameter of (25 cm) and a depth of (35 cm) were filled with (7) kg of air-dry soil and sifted through a sieve with a diameter of (4 mm). (10 seeds) of wheat variety (durum desf) were planted in each pot at a depth of (1 cm) from the soil surface, taking into account the selection of healthy seeds of similar sizes. After (10) days of planting, the plants thinned to only three plants per pot. As for the irrigation process, the experimental plants will be placed below 75% of the field capacity of the soil, using water (the Tigris River) throughout the experiment period, and the irrigation process will be conducted using the gravimetric method by weighing each pot and then adding water to the pot for the purpose of obtaining the wet weight. Experiment design: The experiment will be implemented according to a completely randomized design with three replications as a factorial experiment with three factors: … Read more