Lawsonia inermis L. (Henna): A Comprehensive Review of Its Phytochemistry, Pharmacological Potential, Traditional Uses, and Commercial Applications

1. Introduction Lawsonia inermis L., commonly referred to as henna, is a perennial shrub belonging to the family Lythraceae, which has a long history of use in traditional medicine and cultural rituals. The plant is particularly famous for yielding a reddish-orange colour from the compound lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone), which is found primarily in its leaves. Lawsone, as reported by Oda et al. (2018), is the major active compound that gives henna its colouring properties, which have contributed to its being a standard ingredient in cosmetic and ceremonial applications for centuries. [49] highlighted the broad geographical and cultural significance of L. inermis in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, where it finds application in rituals, healing, and as a plant dye. Apart from its colouring role, the plant contains a wide variety of phytochemicals—e.g., triterpenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic acids—which serve to promote a wide variety of biological activities. [9] has named these compounds as being responsible for their drug efficacy. Traditionally, L. inermis‘ therapeutic uses have been recognised by traditional medical systems worldwide. It was reported used by [35] in Ayurvedic medicine, and [20] used it in wound care, infection management, and metabolism disorder treatment via generation-to-generation transmission of ethnomedicinal information. These conventional claims have been provided with scientific justification by recent experimental research. Its antioxidant, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities were documented by [42], [50], and [2] further investigated its immunomodulatory and wound-healing activities, further establishing its significance in current phytotherapeutic research. Notwithstanding the growing amount of evidence, hurdles like extract standardisation, toxicity testing, and strict clinical trials are still present. The review herein covers an overall discussion on L. inermis, including its taxonomy, phytochemistry, ethnopharmacological history, therapeutic attributes, and prospects in commercialisation. This is aimed at bridging traditional knowledge with contemporary science to aid future innovation and sustainable use of this multipurpose plant. 2. Taxonomy and Botanical Description L. inermis L. is the single known species in the genus Lawsonia and is found in the family Lythraceae, which is placed in the order Myrtales. Its taxonomic status as a dicotyledonous angiosperm has been repeatedly upheld in every classification scheme that has been put forth by Bentham and Hooker, Engler and Prantl, Cronquist, and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG). [49] had characterised L. inermis as a much-branched, smooth shrub or small tree, usually 2 to 6 metres tall. The plant is readily identified by its opposite, simple leaves that range from elliptic to lance-shaped shapes, usually 1.5 to 5 centimetres long [4,6]. These leaves have entire margins and acute tips and are either sessile or attached by very short petioles. The plant bears fragrant flowers arranged in terminal panicles. Each flower consists of four petals, from white to pale pink, and has prominent stamens. [9] reports that the fruits are tiny, spherical capsules measuring 4–8 millimetres in diameter, containing numerous angular seeds. The bark is typically thin and greyish-brown, and it peels in fine layers as the plant grows [7,10]. One of the major botanical features of L. inermis is that it produces the orange-red pigment lawsone, which is deposited in the leaves [49]. observed that the pigment is significant from a historical point of view for its applications in traditional body adornment, natural hair dyeing, and colouring of fabrics. Table 1. Comparative taxonomic classification of L. inermis L. according to different botanical systems (Bentham & Hooker, Engler & Prantl, Cronquist, and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group). Figure I. This figure details the morphological features of L. inermis (henna). (a) presents the mature plant naturally occurring in its environment, with its bushy appearance- (b) provides a flowered branch, which emphasises the opposite phyllotaxy also seen here clearly in the inset. (c) offers a single flowered twig with minute, opposite leaves. (d) gives a close-up of the leaves, which are elliptic, entire, and oppositely arranged on the stem. (e) gives the inflorescence with many minute flowers aggregated in terminal cymes. (t) gives a close-up of one flower, displaying whitish-yellowish petals and bold stamens. (g) gives a single stamen with a bilobed anther, and (h) gives a mature green fruit, which is a tiny capsule. 3. Synonyms and Vernacular Names The botanical name Lawsonia was given in commemoration of Dr. Isaac Lawson, an 18th-century Scottish doctor. The species name inermis refers to the usually spineless twigs of the plant, which separate it from other thorny shrubs. Because of its wide geographic range and morphological variability, L. inermis has been placed under different synonyms in the past. These synonyms, documented in ancient botanical works, are listed in Table 2. L. inermis has a large number of vernacular names, which highlight its extensive cultural and medicinal use. It is “henna” or “Egyptian privet” in the English language [1]. It is named as “mehndi” in Urdu and Hindi, “mendi” in Gujarati and Marathi, and “maruthani” in Tamil. In the Arabic-speaking world, it is also known as “hina” or “henné.” There are similar names given to it in Persian and Swahili cultures. As identified by [1], an array of vernacular names is employed throughout Asia and Africa, each signifying the plant’s function in religious, cosmetic, and medicinal practices. Some examples include “inai” in Indonesian and Malay, “dan” in Burmese, “kaaw” in Lao, and “thian daeng” in Thai. Table 3 presents a list of these names to show the local vocabulary and cultural extent of L. inermis. 4. Cultivation and Distribution L. inermis, or henna, is a hardy plant species that withstands dryness and semi-desert conditions. The plant tends to grow up to a size of about six metres but can be kept in check at a shorter height by way of pruning, thereby maximising production of leaves as a harvest commodity, as has been observed by [50]. Ideal growth is achieved in sandy, drained soils under full sun and is particularly well-suited for tropical and subtropical environments. It is restricted in the colder areas by its frost sensitivity [50]. In the conventional farm environments, L. inermis is commonly planted on field borders or around residences and serves … Read more

Enriched compost with vivianite and pyroclastite powders: suitable fertilizer for better maize growth under the High Guinean Savanah climate of Cameroon

INTRODUCTION Zea mays L., also known as maize, is a food crop of the grass family. This cereal is one of the most important crops for human consumption, with an annual world production of approximately 2.80 billion tons. It is one of the world’s main cereal crops, and thus a mainstay of global food security [1]. Maize is rich in starch (around 70%), fat, protein, ash, mineral elements (potassium, magnesium, and phosphorus), and crude fiber [2]. Cameroon produced 2 million tons of maize in 2020, ranking 14th in Africa [3]. Despite the high level of maize production, requirements are constantly increasing because of the combined effects of rising human and animal consumption. Cameroon is both a maize importer and exporter, depending on the season. In seasonal abundance times (October to mid-January), the maize prices on local markets are low, and Cameroon exports maize to West African markets and even to Europe. When stocks run out from January to February onwards, prices on local markets generally rise until September. The price relationship with the international market then reverses, then Cameroon increases its maize imports [4]. Maize production in Africa increases, and in general, there is still great potential to increase productivity. However, its production is limited in the Adamawa-Cameroon region by many abiotic and biotic constraints that affect the yields. These include soil poverty. In this respect, maize growers in the Adamawa-Cameroon region generally use chemical fertilizers to solve the problem of soil deficiency in mineral elements, in order to optimize the yield of this cereal crop. However, several authors [5] [6] revealed that chemical fertilizers have an immediate positive effect on plant growth potential, but present serious environmental risks and do not maintain soil fertility. In this respect, it is urgent to consider management methods in local farming that can increase agricultural production while protecting the environment. Growing maize using compost combined with rock powders would contribute to improving the seed yield, cleaning up the environment, as well as adding value to our local material in agriculture while protecting the environment. Compost has physicochemical and biological properties that improve soil structure [7] [8]. Compost is an organic amendment that improves soil biodiversity through the contribution of microorganisms, combats mineral depletion, improves physicochemical qualities, and helps reduce the need for industrial nitrogen fertilizers [9].  The Adamawa region is rich in rock deposits, including vivianite in the Hangloa village and basaltic pyroclastites around Lac Tison. Vivianite is rich in phosphorus, then it can be used to improve soil fertility, consequently enhancing plant growth and yields [10]. Pyroclastites are characterized by their mineralogical composition rich in exchangeable bases (Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+) that can improve soil chemical properties [11]. This study aims to improve the maize productivity under the High Guinean Savannah climate of Adamawa-Cameroon without using chemical fertilizers. Specifically, it consists to: (1) evaluate growth substrates (soil, composts) for maize growth; (2) determinate determining the effects of the combination of composts and rock powders on maize production; (3) estimate the economic value of fertilizers. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study site The study was conducted during two cropping seasons (2023 and 2024) in the experimental field of the University of Ngaoundere (Cameroon) located at Darang locality. The area belongs to the agroecological zone II of Cameroon and is characterized by a Sudano-Guinean Savannah with six month’s dry season (November to April) and six months rainy season (May to October). The Adamawa Regional (Cameroon) Meteorological Service provided the meteorological data (precipitation and temperature) for both cropping years. Precipitation is higher in 2023 than in 2024, with an average of 197.11 mm per month and an annual total of 2365.30 mm in 2023, compared with 116.97 mm per month and an annual total of 1403.70 mm in 2024. May and June are the wettest months in 2023, with 415.30 mm and 493.10 mm of precipitation, respectively. In 2024, May and September are the wettest months, with 240.30 mm and 332.20 mm of precipitation, respectively. Average temperatures are higher in 2024 than in 2023, with an average of 24.25°C in 2024 versus 22.10°C in 2023. March and April are the hottest months in 2024, with average temperatures of 29°C and 28°C, respectively. In 2023, March and May are the hottest months, with mean temperatures of 24.20°C and 23.60°C, respectively (figure 1). The vegetation of the area is an herbaceous savannah dominated by Imperata cylindrica, Annona senegalensis, and Piliostigma thonningii. The following are the geographical parameters of the field: 07°23′ latitude North, 13°29′ longitude East, and 1125 m altitude. P: precipitation, T: temperature Material Maize seeds The seeds of the SHABA maize variety are used (Figure 2). These seeds were supplied by the Institute of Agricultural Research for Development of Wakwa (Ngaoundere, Cameroon). This variety was chosen for its great adaptability to the rainy season, early germination, and it has short reproduction cycle. Its development cycle varies between 100 and 120 days. These seeds are white, they are oval-shaped and medium-sized, with an average length of 10.50 mm and an average width of 8.5 mm, average weight is between 250 and 300 mg.     Fertilizers The fertilizers (figure 3) used in the trials include: 03 different types of compost (compost derived from poultry litter, cow dung manure, and goat droppings manure), rock powders (pyroclastites and vivianite), and chemical fertilizers (NPK 20-10-10 and Urea 46 % N). Animal wastes (poultry litter, cow dung, and goat droppings) were collected from livestock buildings located near the campus of the University of Ngaoundere. The composting method, according to [5], was used. The composting process lasted 04 months. Vivianite was collected in the Hangloa locality located between 7o20′ and 7o30′ North latitude and 13o20′ and 13o25′ East longitude. The chemical composition of vivianite powder is the following: Fe2O3 (68.72%), P2O5 (9.17%), Al2O3 (7.72%), and SiO2 (9.67%) [10]. Thus, the total phosphorus content was estimated at about 671.50 mg/kg, while the assimilated phosphorus content was around 81.13 mg/kg. Phosphate contained in this mineral can be solubilized. Pyroclastites were collected around Lake Tyson … Read more

A new species of Passalora crotoniicola on Croton persimilis Mull. Arg. from forest flora of Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh

INTRODUCTION Chhattisgarh is known for its prosperous plant and fungal diversity. Forest flora of Ambikapur is rich, little or few attention is drawn to fungal diversity of Ambikapur. During the survey of Kulhadi forest, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh massive fungal samples were collected on economic and medicinally important plant and one of them was Croton persimilis Mull. Arg (Euphorbiaceae) [6]. Regular survey of Kulhadi forest was conducted for fungal sample collection during every season. The number of fungi till date is likely 2.2 to 3.8 million fungal species, which is only 8% [4]. The plant is known for its medicinal value i.e. antioxidants and anticancer activity [7]. The genus Passalora was introduced by Fr. Summa vagetabilium Scandinaviae (1849) belongs to Mycosphaerellaceae family. Conidia of this genus are solitary, acropleurogenous, olivaceous brown, smooth, subcylindrical to very long ellipsoidal [3]. The present fungal species is never been previously disclosed, hence contributes to a novel fungal species. MATERIALS AND METHODS Survey was conducted in every alternate month of 2017 at Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India. Fungal infected leaves of Croton persimilis was collected in clean polythene bags with a tag with area, date of collection, local and botanical name, symptoms and location mentioned [1,5]. Infected leaves with lesion appearance were scraped on a clean slide mounted along with lactophenol cotton blue and covered with coverslip (Khalkho et al., 2020). Olympus CX2li trinocular microscope was used for morphological features identification. Samples were dried therefore preparative treatment was not given (Bhardwaj et al., 2020). SEM images were clicked under double beam FEI Nova nano SEM-450 at Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, M.P. The sample is reposed in Ajrekar Mycological herbarium- AMH, Pune, Maharashtra, India. The sample is also deposited in Departmental Herbarium of Botany, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, M.P. RESULT   Taxonomy and Description Passalora crotoniicola A. D. Khalkho, S. Nistala and A.N. Rai sp. nov.Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4 Type: India, Chhattisgarh, Ambikapur, on living leaves of Croton persimilis Mull. Arg (Euphorbaceae), Kulhadi forest, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh. September 2017 leg. Anshu Deep Khalkho (Holotype-AMH- 10342, Isotype RAH-42) Etymology: Novel species name is derived from the host plant genus. Symptoms hypogenous, hypophyllous, irregular, scattered, all over the leaf surface, 0.5-4 x 0.5-3 cm, brown to black. Conidiophores macronematous, mononematous, solitary, unbranched, straight to flexuous, small, olivaceous brown, smooth, 1 septate, 8-11 µm x 2.50-4.00 µm. Conidia solitary, acropleurogenous, olivaceous brown, smooth, subcylindrical to very long ellipsoidal, hilum slightly thickened, 0-3 septate, 9.10 µm-19.04 x 3.29-3.85 µm. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS After surveying various mycological literature, new taxon is compared with the taxa reported on the same host family i.e Euphorbiaceae i.e Passalora jatrophigena Braun, U., & Freire, F. O. (2004) (infecting Jatropha sp.) and Passalora cnidoscolifolii (Bat., Peres & O.A. Drumm.) U. Braun & F. Freire (2004) (infecting Cnidoscolus sp.). Some  more similar species of Passalora are P. golaghati [9] and P. sicerariae [8]. It was observed that the novel fungal species is drastically different by symptomatology with larger infection spots, short and less wider conidiophores by having only 1 septa and small conidia with fewer septa to defend against the comparing fungal species. Therefore, the present species Passalora   crotoniicola is justified to place as new taxon of species rank. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank forest department of Ambikapur, C.G., the Curator (AMH), Agharkar Research Institute (ARI), Pune, Maharashtra, India for giving accession number of fungal sample and deposition. Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya for access to Nova Nano SEM 450. Authors are also thankful to the Head, Department of Botany, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar M.P., for providing laboratory facilities. This work was financially supported by Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Govt of India. REFERENCES [1]. Bhardwaj, S., Khalkho, A. D., Dubey, A. & Rai, A. N. (2020). A new host record for Dictyoarthrinium sacchari (J.A. Stev.) Damon. Kavaka, 54, 100-102. [2]. Braun, U., & Freire, F. O. (2004). Some cercosporoid hyphomycetes from Brazil- III. Cryptogamie Mycologie, 25, 221-244. [3]. Ellis, M.B. (1971). Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes, CMI, Kew England. [4]. Hawksworth, D. L., & Lücking, R. (2017). Fungal diversity revisited: 2.2 to 3.8 million species. Microbiology spectrum, 5(4), 10-1128. [5].Khalkho, A. D., Rai, A. N., & Bhardwaj, S. (2021). Capnodium variegatum-a new foliicolous species of sooty mould infecting Bauhinia variegata L. from Chhattisgarh, India. [6]. Khalkho, A. D., & Rai, A. N. (2021). CHECKLIST OF FOLIICOLOUS FUNGAL DIVERSITY: AMBIKAPUR, CHHATTISGARH. [7]. Rattanapunya, S., Sumsakul, W., Bunsongthae, A., & Jaitia, S. (2021). In Vitro Antioxidants and Anticancer activity of Crude Extract Isolates from Euphorbiaceae in Northern Thailand:(TJPS-2020-0282. R2). Thai Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences (TJPS), 45(5). [8]. Singh, A., Bhartiya, H. D., & Singh, P. N. (2022). Passalora sicerariae sp. nov. on Lagenaria siceraria from India. Mycotaxon, 137(2), 245-249.[9]. Singh, G., Yadav, S., Singh, R., & Kumar, S. (2022). Passalora golaghati comb. nov. from India.Singh, G., Yadav, S., Singh, R., & Kumar, S. (2022). Passalora golaghati comb. nov. from India.

Farmers’ Perception of Disease Management at Irasa Farm Cluster, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria

Introduction Nigeria’s agricultural sector contributed significantly to its GDP in the 1960s, accounting for 64% [2]. However, its contribution has declined to around 25% in recent years (Savary et. al, 2012. Despite this decline, agriculture remains vital to Nigeria’s economy, providing food, raw materials, and foreign exchange, with 70% of the population relying on it for their livelihood [11; 5]. Vegetables are a valuable crop, offering nutritional benefits and income-generating potential, particularly in supplementing carbohydrate-based diets [4]. Nevertheless, vegetable production faces numerous challenges, including high input costs, transportation issues, market accessibility, and pest and disease infestations [12]. Insect pest attacks, in particular, significantly impact vegetable quality and yield, making them a major barrier to increased production. To address these challenges and increase agricultural production, farmers have turned to agrochemicals, using an estimated 125,000-130,000 metric tons of pesticides annually [3]. The global disparity between food demand and production continues to grow, exacerbated by the increasing global population, with sub-Saharan Africa being particularly affected [6; 10]. This widening gap has severe consequences, including food insecurity, malnutrition, famine, hunger, high food costs, and social instability. Several factors contribute to this disparity, such as environmental stresses, poor farming practices, limited arable land, and inadequate financing [9]. Additionally, disease and environmental factors are significant contributors to food waste and losses, with a substantial portion of the already insufficient food produced by farmers being lost due to disease, which can also lead to reduced crop yields or complete crop failure [9]. Despite the challenges posed by pests, diseases, and weeds, farmers employ diverse strategies to mitigate these issues in their agricultural practices. Gaining insight into farmers’ perceptions and approaches is essential for enhancing agricultural productivity and sustainability [1]. This report delves into the pest control methods utilized by farmers, with a focus on biological and organic controls, integrated pest management (IPM) techniques, chemical treatments, and alternative nonchemical methods. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Study Site: This research was conducted at the Irasa Farm Cluster in Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria, located within the tropics. The area spans between 40⁰51′ to 50⁰451′ East longitude and 70⁰151′ to 80⁰51′ North latitude. Ekiti State, where the research took place, covers approximately 6,353 square kilometers and comprises 16 local government areas, with a population of around 3,270,798, according to the 2016 census. The state is bordered by Kwara and Kogi states to the north, Osun State to the west, and Ondo State to the south and east. Ekiti State experiences a tropical climate with two distinct seasons: a rainy season from April to October and a dry season from November to March. The temperature ranges from 21⁰ to 28⁰, with high humidity. The southern part of the state is characterized by tropical forests, where agricultural activities dominate, with arable crop production being the primary source of livelihood. Livestock production and artisanship are secondary occupations among the farmers. 2.2 Sampling Technique and Sampling Size A multi-stage sampling approach was employed to select respondents for this study, targeting cassava, yam, and tomato farmers within the Irasa Farm Cluster. The study population comprised farmers from the local farm community, where approximately 95% of the adult population is actively engaged in cultivating crops such as cassava, yam, tomatoes, and vegetables. A random selection process was used to choose participants from this community. 2.3 Data Collection and Analysis Data collection was facilitated through the use of meticulously designed questionnaires and interview schedules, aimed at gauging farmers’ perceptions and knowledge regarding disease management within the farm community. Respondents were chosen through a random selection process. The collected data underwent transformation and analysis using the IRRI STAR (2014) statistical tool. Results and Discussion 3.1: Distribution of the respondents according to their socio-economic characteristics The socio-economic variables of farmers at Irasa Farm Cluster, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria, provide valuable insights into the demographic characteristics of the farming community. A significant majority of the farmers are male (82.5%), indicating a dominant role of men in farming activities in the region. This high percentage of male farmers may be attributed to cultural and traditional factors, where men are often expected to take on more physically demanding roles such as farming. The age distribution of the farmers reveals a relatively youthful population, with 25% of farmers falling within the 16-25 years age range. This suggests that a significant proportion of farmers are young and potentially more open to adopting new technologies and practices. However, the majority of farmers (42.5%) fall within the 36-56 years age range, indicating a significant level of experience and expertise among the farming community. The educational background of the farmers reveals a concerning lack of formal education, with 52.5% of farmers having no formal education. This may limit their access to information and knowledge on modern farming practices, including disease management. However, 27.5% and 17.5% of farmers have primary and secondary education, respectively, which may provide a foundation for understanding and adopting new practices. The years of farming experience among the farmers reveal a significant level of expertise, with 45% of farmers having 11-20 years of experience. This suggests that many farmers have developed valuable knowledge and skills through their years of experience. However, 20% of farmers have less than 5 years of experience, which may indicate a need for targeted extension services and training to support these newer farmers. Finally, the type of cropping system used by the farmers reveals a universal adoption of mixed cropping (100%). This suggests that farmers in the region recognize the benefits of diversifying their crops, which can help to reduce disease pressure and promote more sustainable farming practices. However, it also highlights the need for targeted support and guidance on managing mixed cropping systems to maximize their benefits. 3.2 Distribution of the farmers according to their perception towards Plant Disease in Irasa Farm Cluster The results of the survey on farmers’ perception towards plant disease in Irasa Farm Cluster reveal a profound impact of disease on farmers’ livelihoods, with 97.5% of respondents having experienced disease on their farms, likely due to the region’s tropical … Read more

Anatomical studies (Stem & Ovary) of Genus Datura L. (Solanaceae) in Karnataka, India

INTRODUCTION             Diversity of Datura L. across South West and Central U.S.A. to Maxico is 14 species [7]. Latin Solanum “the nightshade plant” derived the family name as ‘Solanaceae’. The genus Datura belonging to the Solanaceae family comprises several species including some medicinal properties [10]. Cytological and tissue culture studies [13] have reported arrangement and variations among four distinct taxa in Datura and two distinct taxa in Withania. Anatomy and Morphology  of stem in some speceis of Solanaceae [6] family has reported the variations in Solanum tuberosum L., Capsicum annum L. and Datura stramonium L. [12]. The growth of Datura inoxia was huge in normal water, but the average roots were long under wastewater. Datura inoxia demonstrated have strong adaptive potential under wastewater. Stem and leaf anatomy of nine Solanum species of Egypt to find useful taxonomic characters and indicate close interrelationships among the collected species include: the diversity of epidermis, cortex, vascular bundle and pith thickness of stem is varied for epidermis, mesophyll for leaves lamina and midrib. Ultimate moto of work is to solve taxonomic dispute among Solanum genus[11].             Microscopical investigation of three Datura species have recorded the variations among the stem sections between 3 taxa in Datura [5]. Morphological studies of flowering plants (Solanaceae) have reported variations in morphological aspects among 20 species belonging to Family Solanaceae which is toxic (Potent-alkaloids) in some conditions used as staple food. The present observation shows that majority of Solanaceae species have same morphological features of family [4]. MATERIAL METHODS Study area: The research was conducted across various districts. The plants from different localities of Karnataka were collected in different seasons from districts like Gadag, Dharwad, Belagavi, Hassan and Chikkamagaluru covering different agro-climatic zones to capture the diversity of Datura species. Collection & identification: Collection of species was carried out in different seasons (Summer, winter, and rainy), collected in triplet form for dissection, identification and anatomical studies. Identification using different district floras [(2); (3); (9); (1); (8)]. Anatomical studies: Collected stem samples were stored in water for one day, washed in 100 % alcohol, and sectioned and stained with safranin stain and observed under binocular microscope, recorded the characters with photographs. Ovary anatomy was selected small ovary which is slightly maturing, sectioned and observed under microscope with safranin stain. RESULTS During the survey five Datura species with two verities from different districts of Karnataka (Figure 1). The variations observed and studied among all the Datura species are described individually below. STEM ANATOMY OF GENUS DATURA L. IN KARNATAKA: I) Datura discolor Bernh. (Figure 2) The stem is circular. The transverse section of Datura discolor shows the presence of cuticle layer above the epidermis. The epidermis is 4-5 layered, cells varying from rectangular to cylindrical; these are tightly packed which bears trichomes arising from the epidermal layer. Cambium is about 4 layered having hexagonal cells. Endodermis and pericycle is single layered. It also bears Vascular bundles i.e., phloem and xylem. The Meta xylem, xylem and Proto xylem are arranged linearly towards the pith. Pith is hollow, where Parenchyma having thin cell walls and few chlorenchyma  cells  containing chloroplast are present. II) Datura ferox L. (Figure 2) The stem is circular. Shows multilayered cuticle layered above the epidermis which is about 7-8 layers from which trichomes arose. Hypodermis made up cuboidal shaped cells and are larger than epidermis and is one layered. Cortex is with irregular shaped (circular, ovate, elongate) cells and are collenchymatous. Endodermis 1or 2 layered with rectangular or barrel shaped thin wall. Pericycle 1-2 layered. Pholem is with two or many layered cells, Xylem are 5 and more layers which are continuous. Large pith is present at the center , which is composed of large parenchymatous and chlorenchymatous cells between them having oval structure. III) Datura innoxia Mill. (Figure 3) The stem is circular. Shows epidermis which is the outermost single layer, above which 2 layered cuticle coverings is present. Epidermis bears many trichomes having glandular and multicellular trichomes. Outer cortex is made up of collenchymarous cells, 2-3 layered cells similar to endodermis cells. Cortex is thin walled bearing 4-6 layers, and cells are circular oblong. Phloem are rectangular cells, 4- 6 layered. Xylem strands grows up to 15-20 layers. Below the xylem 4-5 layers of thin walled parenchymatous cells are present, it is compactly arranged, tangentially elongated or polygonal. Pith is large  at the center; it is made of large parenchymatous cells along with chlorenchymatous cells and bearing hollow structure at the centre. IV) Datura metel L. (single white corolla) (Figure 3) The stem is circular. Shows two layered epidermis, above which a thin cuticle layer is observed. Cortex is made up of 4-5 layers having collenchymatous cells that are cuboidal in shape. Pericycle is about 2-3 layers. Phloem is about 3-4 layers that are rectangular in shape. Xylem cells are arranged radially beneath the phloem.  Pith is large having paranchymatous and chlorenchymatous cells, ranging from hexagonal to circular in shape. V) Datura metel L. (single purple corolla) (Figure 4) The stem is circular. Epidermis is one layered made up of cuboidal shaped cells. Above which thick cuticle layer covering is observed. Hypodermal layer is larger, rectangular shape than the epidermal cells. Cortex, is made up of 8-10 layers having collenchymatous cells that are rectangular, oval, circular or irregular in shape. Endodermis is not prominent. Pericycle is 3-4 layered. Phloem is composed of 4-7 layers of rectangular, tangentially elongated cells. Radially arranged xylem cells are found below the phloem. Xylem patches penetrating into the pith region. Pith is large and composed of thin walled paranchymatous cells, circular with presence of chlorenchymatous cells in between. VI) Datura metel L. (Tri-petal purple) (Figure 4) The stem is circular. Thick cuticle covering, below which about 8-9 layers of epidermis is observed. Hypodermis comprises of Parenchyma and collenchymatous cells ranging from circular to hexagonal shapes of various size. Cortex comprises of 10-12 layers. Pericycle is about 4-5 layers. Phloem is composed of 5-6 layers.  Xylem cells found penetrating into the pith … Read more

Effect of GA₃ and NAA on Growth and Yield of Cabbage

Introduction Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.), commonly referred to as “Badhacopy” in Bangladesh, belongs to the Brassicaceae family and is an important winter vegetable extensively grown across the country .It provides a wealth of essential nutrients like vitamins A, B, and C, along with minerals and beneficial bioactive compounds such as sinigrin glucoside, which enhance both its unique flavor and health-promoting properties. Additionally, cabbage is utilized in various culinary forms, including curries, salads, and pickles. The edible portion consists of tightly packed leaves forming the head, which is a vital economic trait. From a nutritional standpoint, every 100 grams of the edible green part of cabbage comprises about 92% water and supplies 24 kilocalories of energy, along with 1.5 grams of protein, 4.8 grams of carbohydrates, 40 milligrams of calcium, 0.6 milligrams of iron, 600 IU of carotene, 0.05 milligrams of riboflavin, 0.3 milligrams of niacin, and 60 milligrams of vitamin C. [1]. Cabbage also contains sulforaphane, a potent anti-carcinogenic compound, and increased consumption of plant-based foods such as cabbage has been linked to reduced risks of diabetes, obesity, heart disease, and overall mortality. Although cabbage is an important crop in Bangladesh, its average yield is relatively low at 16.06 tons per hectare, falling well behind countries like Japan (40.03 t/ha), South Korea (59.07 t/ha), and even neighboring India (17.88 t/ha). [2]. This yield gap can be attributed primarily to suboptimal management practices and limited adoption of yield-enhancing technologies. Utilizing plant growth regulators (PGRs) is one promising approach to boosting cabbage production, as they significantly influence plant growth, development, and yield improvement. Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are organic substances that can alter various physiological functions in plants, even when applied in minimal amounts. Auxins like naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) mainly promote cell elongation, whereas gibberellins (GA₃) encourage both cell division and elongation. [3]. External application of these growth regulators has been extensively researched across different crops, showing notable enhancements in plant growth and yield. [4]. Research indicates that GA₃ boosts plant height, leaf expansion, and head development, whereas NAA supports root growth and increases head weight. [5,6]. Research indicates that cabbage shows a positive response to foliar applications of GA₃ and NAA, resulting in increased leaf count and enhanced marketable yield. [7,8]. Drobek M. [9] discovered that applying GA₃ at 60 ppm and NAA at 80 ppm produced the highest yield of cabbage heads.. Similarly, PAINKRA, B. [8] reported the highest yield when GA₃ was applied at 50 ppm, with NAA at 50 ppm closely following. Other studies suggest that GA₃ at 100 ppm yields the best results for cabbage production [10,11], while maximum head yield was also reported with NAA at 50 ppm. Although promising results have been observed in other regions, there is a lack of research on the effectiveness of these growth regulators in Bangladesh, emphasizing the need for further studies. This study assessed the effects of GA₃ and NAA on cabbage and identified their optimal concentrations for maximizing growth and yield. Materials and Methods Location and Study Period The study was conducted at the Horticulture Farm of Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) in Joydebpur, Gazipur, from October 2016 to March 2017. It aimed to evaluate the effects of gibberellic acid (GA₃) and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) on the growth and yield of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata). Soil and Climatic Conditions The experimental field had sandy clay loam soil with a pH of approximately 6.0, belonging to the Chita soil series (AEZ-28). The climate was subtropical, with heavy rainfall between May and September, followed by a dry period for the rest of the year. Planting Material and Treatments The test variety used was ‘Atlas-70’ cabbage, sourced from Siddik Bazaar, Gulistan, Dhaka. The experiment included eight treatments: Study Design and Field Layout The experiment used a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. It involved 24 plots (1.8 m × 2 m) with 50 cm × 60 cm plant spacing. Blocks were separated by 0.75 m, and plots within blocks had 0.5 m spacing. Land Preparation and Fertilizer Application The field was plowed, exposed to sunlight for a week, and leveled. Cinocarb 3G insecticide (4 kg/ha) was applied to control soil-borne pests. Fertilizers were applied following Islam et al. (2004) recommendations: Growth Regulator Preparation and Treatment Application A 1000 ppm GA₃ stock solution was prepared, diluted to obtain 50 ppm, 75 ppm, and 100 ppm solutions, and applied using a mini hand sprayer at 30 and 45 days after transplanting. A similar method was followed for NAA solutions. Seedling Raising and Transplanting Cabbage seedlings were raised at Olericulture Division, HRC, BARI, Gazipur, on 3 m × 1 m seedbeds. Decomposed cow dung (5 t/ha), 200 g TSP, and 150 g MoP were applied. Seeds were sown on November 26, 2016, and transplanted at 27 days old (December 22, 2017). Intercultural Operations Harvesting and Data Collection Cabbage was harvested between February 28 and March 8, 2017, based on head compactness. Data were collected from five randomly selected plants per plot, while total yield was measured on a per-plot basis. Recorded Parameters Data Processing and Analysis Data were analyzed using ANOVA in Statistics 10.0, and mean comparisons were conducted using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at a 5% significance level. Result and Discussion Plant height The application of GA₃ and NAA has been shown ( Fig 1) to significantly influence plant height in cabbage cultivation. In a study evaluating various concentrations of these plant growth regulators, the tallest plants were observed by applying of 75 ppm GA₃, reaching a height of 23.00 cm. This was statistically comparable to treatments with 50 ppm GA₃, 100 ppm GA₃, and 60 ppm NAA. In contrast, the shortest plants, measuring 17.25 cm, were recorded in the control group, which did not receive any growth regulator. The increase in plant height resulting from GA₃ and NAA treatments can be attributed to their roles in modulating physiological processes such as cell elongation and division, thereby promoting enhanced vegetative growth. GA₃, in particular, … Read more

Phytochemical and Proximate Studies on Justicia secunda vahl (Blood root)

Introduction Justicia secunda is a flowering plants belonging to the family Acanthaceae. It has over 700 species. They are commonly found most parts of Africa and America. It hosts many insects such as butterfly. Available data confirmed that J. secunda currently domesticated in the sub-saharan Africa originated from a part of America. The name “Justicia”   is in honour of the Scottish horticulturist James Justice (1698–1763) [1]. It is commonly known as St.john’s bush but “blood leaf” or “blood root” in Barbados [2]. In Nigeria, the igbos call it “Obara Yom Yom” or” ogwu obara ” meaning ” blood multiplier” or ” blood tonic”. Ethnobotanical Significance and Distribution of Justicia secunda Justicia secunda, commonly known as “blood root” or “blood leaf,” holds various local names reflecting its cultural and medicinal importance across Nigeria. Among the Yorùbá people, it is referred to as “Èwẹ Èjẹ” (blood leaf) or “Èwẹ Ajẹ́rì” (Jehovah Witness leaf), the latter name highlighting its traditional use as a natural alternative to blood transfusion—particularly valued by members of the Jehovah’s Witness faith who may decline conventional transfusion procedures for religious reasons. In South-Eastern Nigeria, particularly among the Igbo-speaking communities, the plant is locally called “Obara Bundu,” emphasizing its association with blood restoration. The Ogbia people of Otuoke-Otuaba in Bayelsa State, located in the Niger-Delta region, refer to it as “Asindiri” or “Ohowaazara.” Justicia secunda thrives in humid environments, often found growing in moist soils near rivers, streams, and creeks. Its distribution spans tropical and pantropical regions of the world, where it is valued not only for its medicinal uses but also for its ecological adaptability. Medicinal plants according to World Health Organization [3] is defined as herbal preparations made by introducing plants materials to extract, fractionation, purification, concentration or other biological or physical processes which maybe produced for herbal products or for immediate consumption4. Most drug are produced both in orthodox and traditional medicine using medicinal plants. The importance of medicinal plants in health care delivery system cannot be over-emphasized because over 50% of the world population use it for treatment and prevention of various diseases that affaect both children and adults. It is a known fact that orthodox drugs are expensive, not readily available and most have side effects in some remote places, hence the recent increase in the usage of medicinal plants in these areas. Socio-ethnic preference and indigence may likely be part of the reason for the recent shift. Justicia secunda leaf is used in the treatment of anemia in some parts of Africa especially Jehovah’s Witness believers. The plant is referred to as blood booster. This is also confirms the scientific basis of the doctrine of signature;  decoction from the leaf produce red colour. [5,6]. Ethno-medicinal studies on the plant proved that every part of the plant is useful especially in folk medicine. Athough the leaf and the roots are mostly used. The effectiveness of the extract in the treatment of ilments especially diabetes has been confirmed by various researchers. This was done by the leaf extract [7]. Its microbial activity on some bacteria has also been proven [8]. The plant has low glucose deficiency and anti-biabetic effects9. This proved by an empirical study conducted with model organisms, while the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities have also been reported [10]. The reactive substances in this plant are responsible for most of these activities. Phytochemicals also referred to as phytoconstituents are bioactive compounds that play significant role in disease prevention and control. This is an essential feature of the plant-derived chemicals. Primarily, these chemicals are produced for the protection of plants but findings from researchers proved that they also protect man against diseases. Over one thousand phytochemicals in plants have been studied and documented. Common examples of phytochemicals are alkaloids, terpeniods, steroids, flavonoids, tannins and phenolic compounds [11], phytochemicals, also called secondary metabolites are usually abundant in various parts of therapeutic plants including J. secunda, they have protective mechanism and defend plants from various stress12. In Nigeria, Justicia secunda Vahl is commonly cultivated around homesteads, where it often serves dual purposes as both a living fence and a medicinal herb. The plant is valued for its ease of propagation; it can be readily grown from stem cuttings by simply inserting the stem 1–2 inches into moist soil. One of its most notable features is the purplish-reddish sap, often referred to as “blood juice,” which is extracted from the leaves either by soaking in water or by boiling. This extract is typically consumed as a herbal tea believed to have blood-enhancing properties. In various regions of the country, the fresh leaves of J. secunda are also consumed raw or used in combination with other medicinal plants such as “nchuanwu” (scent leaf, Ocimum gratissimum) and Moringa oleifera as culinary ingredients to enhance the nutritional and medicinal value of local dishes like yam porridge and stews. Despite its widespread application in Nigerian folkloric medicine, scientific validation remains limited, with relatively few pharmacological studies conducted to date on this potentially valuable species [13]. This study is aimed at identifying the phytochemicals and Proximate components of Justicia secunda vahl which will be useful in providing information that could lead to further utilization of the plant either for medicinal purposes or other uses in the future and to establish the importance of Justicia secunda vahl plant. Materials and methods Collection and Identification of Plant Sample Fresh leaves of Justicia secunda were collected on November 8th, 2022, from Obeagu Village, Agulu, located in Anaocha Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria. The plant specimen was subsequently identified and authenticated by a taxonomist in the Department of Botany, Faculty of Biosciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. A voucher specimen was deposited in the department’s herbarium with the reference number NAUH-203B. Preparation of plant sample for phytochemical extraction.  Each leaf was spread on the laboratory bench and carefully inspected for the presence of variegated or extraneous materials such as dirt and insect larvae. Healthy leaves were sorted and washed under running water without squeezing to … Read more

Comparative analysis of Azadirachta indica and Trichoderma viride in the management of fungal-induced rot in Ipomoea batatas

INTRODUCTION Cultivated in many countries, including sub-Saharan Africa, sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas, L.), a root crop of the Convolvulaceae family, are an important secondary crop that contributes to household food security in many countries (15, 19, 21). The yellow-orange cultivars contain variable, but occasionally large, quantities of carotenoids, which act as precursors of vitamin A (20). Microorganisms, primarily fungi, can infect sweet potato roots at various stages, including field, harvest, and storage stages. Infection is primarily facilitated by mechanical injuries of the roots and environmental conditions (25). These cultivars combine a number of advantageous characteristics that give them great potential as food (26). Azadirachtin is the primary constituent of seeds that has both antifeedant and poisonous effects on insects. It is a complex tetranortriterpenoid limonoid. (14). Both Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA were susceptible to the in vitro antibacterial activity of the neem leaf ethanol extract, with the largest zones of inhibition seen at 100% concentration (21). According to Nawrocka et al. (16), secondary metabolites have the ability to stimulate plant growth, function as antibacterial agents, and supply abundant resources for the production of agricultural antibiotics. Neem has the ability to scavenge free radicals because of its abundance of antioxidants (7). One of the most prevalent culturable fungi, Trichoderma is found in a wide range of ecological diversity. The genus is widely distributed in root and soil ecosystems as well as plant waste, and it is free-living, cosmopolitan, facultatively anaerobic, filamentous, and asexually reproducing. Trichoderma has long been recognized as a microbial biocontrol agent that can replace chemical fungicides in the fight against the diverse range of fungus responsible for root rot, soilborne, and foliar infections (6). The term “antibiosis” primarily describes Trichoderma’s capacity to produce antagonistic compounds that prevent the growth of plant pathogenic fungi (10, 9, 13, 23, 3). Trichoderma employs this phenomenon of antibiosis to manufacture low-molecular-weight, diffusible, specialized chemicals or an antibiotic with antifungal and antibacterial effects.  Antibiotics can enter host cells, function as metabolic inhibitors, or hinder protein synthesis (translational routes), and prevent the target pathogen from producing metabolites, growing, sporulating, absorbing nutrients, or forming cell walls, depending on their biochemical makeup.  Trichoderma can create hundreds of antimicrobial secondary metabolites, including as trichomycin, gelatinomycin, chlorotrichomycin, and antibacterial peptides.  (12). The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of Azadirachta indica leaf extracts and Trichoderma viride in the control of fungi causing rot in Ipomoea batatas. MATERIALS AND METHODS AREA OF STUDY The Maeve Academic Research Laboratory in Awka served as the study’s location. COLLECTION OF MATERIALS Samples of Ipomoea batatas were procured from the Eke Nibo market and kept in sterile paper bags. The Azadirachta indica leaves were collected from a farmland in Okpuno Awka while Trichoderma viride was collected from Maeve Academic research laboratory Awka PREPARATION OF PLANT SAMPLE FOR PHYTOCHEMICAL EXTRACTION After being left to dry at room temperature for five days, the plant samples were blended into a powder using an electric blender. One hundred milliliters of ethanol were used to extract fifteen grams (15g) of the sample for thirty minutes after it had been weighed using a Soxhlet extractor.  The extract was stored for phytochemical and antibacterial testing after being moved into a 250 ml conical flask. PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS Qualitative Analysis (5) Phenol Test: Add a few drops of a diluted ferric chloride solution to test for phenol to a test tube containing five milliliters (5ml) of the extract. The presence of phenols is indicated by the production of a red, blue, green, or purple colouring. Alkaloids Test:  The extract was pipetted into a test tube to check for alkaloids in five milliliters (5ml).  Using Mayer’s reagent (potassium mercuric iodide), the filtrate was thoroughly examined.  Alkaloids are present when the precipitate is yellow in color. Keller-Killani Test for Cardiac Glycoside: Five milliliters (5 ml) of extract were mixed with a few drops of glacial acetic acid, 10% ferric chloride, and concentrated sulfuric acid.  The presence of cardiac glycosides is indicated by the reddish-brown appearance at the intersection of the two liquid layers. Anthraquinone glycosides: Bontrager’s test for anthraquinone glycosides involved adding diluted sulfuric acid to five milliliters (5 ml) of extract, boiling it, and filtering it. Then, adding an equivalent volume of benzene or chloroform to the cold filtrate, the organic layer was separated, and ammonia was added, causing the ammonia layer to turn pink or red. Test for Flavonoids: A few drops of ammonia solution were combined with five milliliters of extract. Flavonoids are indicated by their yellow or orange appearance. Test for Tannins: In a test tube, two milliliters (5 ml) of a 10% ferric chloride solution were added to five milliliters (5 ml) of water extract of every plant part. The presence of tannins is indicated by a blue-black precipitate. Test for Saponin:  To a test tube containing five milliliters (5 ml) of the plant sample two milliliters of distilled water were added to the plant sample, and it was vigorously shaken. The presence of saponin is indicated by the volume of persistent froth or bubbles that form. Test for Steroids and Terpenes: A test tube containing five milliliters (5 ml) of sample extract was mixed with two milliliters of acetic anhydride and a few drops of strong sulfuric acid. Steroids are indicated by blue-green rings between layers, while terpenes are indicated by pink-purple rings. Quantitative Analysis Tannin: As stated by Ejikeme et al. (2) and Amadi et al. (1).  The tannin content was quantitatively ascertained using an analytical method. The Folin-Denis reagent was made by dissolving 50 g of sodium tungstate (Na2WO4) in 37 cm3 of distilled water.  After adding 25 cm3 of orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4) and 10 g of phosphomolybdic acid, the reagent was refluxed for two hours, cooled, and diluted with 500 cm3 of distilled water.  In a conical flask, 2g of the material was mixed with 50ml of distilled water.  This was cooked gradually on an electric hot plate for an hour before being filtered using number 42 (125 mm) Whatman filter … Read more

Studies on Fungi Affecting Maize [Zea Mays L.] Grains in Storage: A Review

INTRODUCTION Suleiman et al. [62], asserts that Zea mays L., sometimes known as maize in the US and Canada, is the third most significant cereal crop in the world, behind rice and wheat.  Due to its beneficial effects on health and the utilization of its products and by-products, it is known as the cereal of the future. Several applications, such as food preparation, animal feed, and ethanol manufacturing, have been projected to raise the demand for maize by 50%. It might be an essential grain for much of the world, including Asia, Latin America, and Africa.  One of the most significant crops in the world, Zea mays L. provides the staple diet of more than 1 billion people in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa [23]. A crop with a short life cycle, maize needs a warm temperature as well as the right handling and management. According to Dilip and Aitya [18], it is a lucrative animal feed, human food, and raw material for a few companies. Zea mays L. is the most common cereal grain by generation, although it comes in third place as a staple food, after rice and wheat. Although there are many different explanations for this fact, some of them have to do with social or cultural preferences because maize is grown as animal feed in several countries [29]. Zea mays L. is a multipurpose crop that provides food and energy for people as well as fodder for farm animals, poultry, and birds. Its grains are used as raw materials to make a variety of mechanical products and have amazing nutritional value [2]. According to Niaz and Dawar [45], grains are essential for the production of glucose, carbohydrates, and oil. Although food composition data is important for dietary planning and provides information for epidemiological researchers [4], little is known about the nutritional makeup of the various types of maize. Given that malnutrition is the cause of a significant number of metabolic disorders and diseases and that maize is the most common bread grain consumed by the majority of people worldwide, the development of high-yielding maize cultivars with improved sugar and starch content in the kernels may lead to their increased use in human and industrial applications [43]. Since a significant amount of the grain [maize] is harvested and stored in hot, humid conditions, most farmers in tropical and subtropical nations need the appropriate skills, equipment, and drying methods [69].  In this way, the maize is kept warm and slightly moist, which can accelerate grain breakdown and encourage the growth of bacteria, fungi, and insects within the grains.  Fungi, which show up as mold or caking on the contaminated grain or ear, are the most common kind of contamination in grains that have been stored. The grain’s color, vitality, and nutritional content all decline. The most feared consequence of fungal attack is the production of toxic substances called mycotoxins, which harm both humans and animals [51, 15]. Fungi are one of the main causes of maize grain deterioration and loss [48]. If the right conditions are present, fungi can damage farmers’ maize by 50–80% while it is being stored, according to Binyam [11]. Certain kinds of fungi may cling to maize seeds while they are being stored, degrading them or just continuing to exist and contaminating young seedlings. Among the fungal genera frequently identified in stored maize grains are Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and a few xerophytic species, some of which can produce toxins [11]; the moisture level of the product can affect the growth of these fungi [22]; temperature, storage duration, and the degree of contagious contamination before storage, as well as insect and mite movement, promote the spread of fungi [61]; there is a common increase in the use of contaminated grain that contains mycotoxins, which results in specific health problems, including death [35, 67]. Fusarium attacks more than 50% of maize grain before harvest and produces mycotoxin [65], while Aspergillus flavus becomes systemic and produces aflatoxin in seedlings of maize and damaged stored corn. According to Uzma and Shahida [65], fungi are the second most common cause of maize loss and weakening, behind insects.  Maize is hygroscopic, meaning it tends to collect or release moisture, just like other food items that are kept in storage.  Even if the portion is adequately dried after harvest, it will still retain moisture from the environment if it is kept in a damp, humid environment [17].  As a result, the maize will have more moisture, which will facilitate better disintegration.  Insect and microbe growth, as well as climatic factors like temperature and relative humidity, should all be avoided while storing high-quality maize [52]. The current estimates of the annual cost of grain loss in poor nations owing to insects and microbes destroying grain storage range from $500 million to $1 billion, according to Campbell et al. [12], because they raise the temperature and moisture content of the grain, insects make it easier for mold to grow by creating attack points.  Due to the production of mycotoxins, particularly aflatoxins, fungus growth in maize poses a major risk to both humans and animals.  Storage factors like temperature, relative humidity, and length of storage affect the fungi’s ability to produce aflatoxin in the grain [62]. The conditions that cause stored maize to spoil are the focus of this review. Finding a workable, affordable, and non-toxic way to stop fungal infection and mycotoxin load in stored maize grains is crucial. 2.0      MYCOTOXINS Filamentous fungi produce mycotoxins, which are low-molecular-weight normal products, or tiny particles, as auxiliary metabolites. As a result of their ability to infect and kill humans and other vertebrates, these metabolites form a chemically and toxicologically diverse array that is grouped. It should come as no surprise that many mycotoxins have overlapping toxicities to microbes, plants, and invertebrates. Around 100,000 turkey chickens perished in a strange emergency outside London, Britain, in 1962, which led to the coining of the word “mycotoxin.” [9, 10]. The mycotoxins with the greatest agro-economic relevance are … Read more

Characterization of Juvenile Kola (Cola spp.) in Nigeria Using Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) Markers

1. Introduction Economically,Kola is a significant commodity crop that contributes to local livelihoods and agricultural diversification. The cultivation and trade of Kola products create employment opportunities and encourage smallholder farming, thus enhancing food security and community resilience. Furthermore, as the global demand for caffeine and specialty beverages continues to rise, Kola holds promise for expanding markets and fostering economic growth within the region [1] [2]. The kola nut, derived from the fruit of the Kola tree, holds a significant place in both cultural traditions and nutritional value. Morphologically, these seeds exhibit three distinct colors: white, red, and pink. Each hue not only contributes to its visual appeal but also signifies varying levels of caffeine and theobromine, compounds that are essential for its stimulating properties. In terms of nutritional composition, the kola nut is rich in key chemical elements, including water, fat, ash, fiber, carbohydrates, and proteins. Kola nuts help to reduce the sensations of hunger and tiredness [3]. Kola nuts are characterized by a significant caffeine concentration, typically ranging from 1.84 to 2.56%. This inherent stimulant property has historically contributed to their utilization in various cultural and commercial contexts. The presence of this substantial caffeine level distinguishes kola nuts from other botanical products [4]. The burgeoning interest in natural remedies has propelled nuts and their extracts into prominence across Europe and North America. Beyond their traditional culinary applications, these resources are increasingly utilized in alternative medicinal practices and as components in diverse industrial products, including soft drinks, confectionery, animal feed, liquid soaps, and dyes [1] [2] [5]. Numerous medicinal properties have been ascribed to the kola nut, including its purported efficacy in treating infections, dermatological conditions, ulcers, and oral discomfort. Furthermore, anecdotal evidence suggests its use in alleviating morning sickness, intestinal ailments, headaches, depression, and diminished libido, as well as respiratory and gastrointestinal disorders [6] [7].  kola nuts are traditionally purported to provide diverse health benefits, such as digestive aid, hangover relief, support for menstrual regulation and labor complications [8] [7]. Kola nut trees, indigenous to the tropical forests of West Africa, hold considerable cultural importance. Beyond their botanical characteristics, these trees are integral to the social, religious, and ceremonial practices of numerous indigenous communities within the region. The kola nut itself thus serves as more than just a product of the forest, functioning as a symbolic element deeply embedded in local traditions [7] [9]. It is utilized at weddings, child naming ceremonies, chief installation ceremonies, funerals, and sacrifices offered to many African mythological gods [7] [9]. Kola cultivation, while vital for both health and economic stability, presents significant challenges to producers. These challenges include reproductive barriers such as sterility and incompatibilities in pollination, exacerbated by undesirable agronomic traits such as excessive tree height, diminished nut production, and extended maturation timelines. These factors collectively hinder kola production efficiency and profitability. To improve and advance its research attention, accurate genetic diversity studies of the existing Kola germplasm in Nigeria are needed to assist in selecting suitable parents for subsequent breeding programs. Several projects, including the collection of Kolaaccessions from different farmer fields in different locations in Nigeria, have been conducted, although with no distinguishing features. These are maintained as field gene banks with the aim of effectively incorporating them in breeding programs. Molecular characterization, which highlights the genetic diversity and relationships among various groups of different accessions, is required for direct and more reliable selection of Kola accessions. Intersimple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers represent a valuable tool for discerning genetic variation within crops and tree species. Recent application of this technology to Kola accessions within the Institute’s germplasm collection has facilitated the assessment of existing genetic diversity. Such characterization is crucial for comprehending the patterns of diversity and, ultimately, enhancing desirable traits through targeted breeding strategies. 2. Materials and methods 2.1 Plant Materials and Sample Collection This study utilized forty Kola accessions maintained in a newly established germplasm collection at the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria Headquarters in Ibadan (Table 1). Fresh, young leaf samples were collected from each of the selected accessions and carefully preserved in appropriately labeled and sealed bags for subsequent analysis. Following collection, samples were immediately transferred on ice to the bioscience laboratory at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan. Upon arrival, DNA extraction and subsequent genetic profiling were conducted utilizing the Intersimple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) marker procedure. 2.2 DNA Extraction Leaf samples underwent a DNA extraction protocol commencing with mechanical disruption via vortexing in the presence of steel balls and silica gel. Subsequently, a preheated extraction buffer was applied, followed by incubation and homogenization. Protein precipitation was achieved through the addition of potassium acetate and chloroform isoamyl alcohol, with centrifugation separating the supernatant. DNA precipitation was then induced using isopropanol and a subsequent cold incubation, followed by ethanol washes and pellet air-drying. Finally, the DNA pellet was resuspended in ultrapure water, treated with RNase to remove RNA, and incubated. 2.3 Electrophoresis of DNA DNA extraction from leaf tissue was successfully confirmed via agarose gel electrophoresis. A 1% agarose gel was prepared by dissolving agarose powder in 1x TAE buffer, followed by the addition of EZVision DNA stain after cooling. DNA samples, combined with loading buffer, were then electrophoresed alongside a molecular weight ladder. Post-electrophoresis, the gel was visualized under UV transillumination, with the presence of distinct DNA bands indicating successful DNA extraction. 2.4 Polymerase chain reaction The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed utilizing a mixture of Taq 2X Master Mix, forward and reverse primers, DNA template, and nuclease-free water, combined in specified volumes. The thermocycler program commenced with an initial denaturation, followed by 36 cycles of denaturation, annealing, and elongation, each with designated temperatures and durations. A final elongation step was implemented, succeeded by a holding temperature of 10°C. 2.5 DNA scoring and analysis Following PCR amplification, amplified fragments were separated via agarose gel electrophoresis and visualized with UV illumination. Alleles were scored binarily based on band presence (1), absence (0), or missing data (m). Polymorphism percentage was determined by dividing the number of … Read more