Article Archive: Volume 3 Issue 2 2024

Intercrop Production of Sesame with Green Gram Optimized for Humera, Ethiopia

  • Dawit Fisseha Weldearegay

Global sesame (Sesamumindicum) grain production is about 3,000,000 Mg yr-1 with about 1,200,000 Mg yr-1 traded with a value of $1 billion [1]. [2] Sesame is the main oil seed crop in Ethiopia with about 270,000 ha yr-1 planted and 172,000 Mg yr-1 harvested. There is a huge demand for sesame. Monocropping accounts for the majority of production. Low soil fertility and pest abundance have become major issues in the research area as a result of the repeated production of sesame on the same plot of land [3]. Its production has decreased and is no longer sufficient to meet the conventional income of the producers [4]. Yields are poor, though. The crop requires a lot of sunlight. Row spacing is a point of contention; the Tigray Agricultural Research Institute Humera Agricultural Research Center recommends 40 x 10 cm spacing, whereas the Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) suggests 80 x 10 cm. Green gram (Vigna radiate L. Wilczek) is a relatively minor pulse crop in Ethiopia but adapted to high temperatures with good market demand and adapted to intercropping [5]. Crop residues of green gram are valued for fodder. The crop is susceptible to wind damage during pod-fill due to lost pods [6]. Intercropping sesame with green gram has promise. The taller sesame plants intercept much sunlight while protecting green gram from wind damage. Since the interspecific facilitation systems clearly encouraged soil N supply and water complementary use, they were advantageous for increasing grain output and soil labile carbon input [7]. However, information for optimized management of the intercropping system is inadequate. The production of sesame is dominated by monocropping, and due to the repeated production of the crop on the same plot of land, low soil fertility and pest abundance have become major issues in the research area [3]. The crop’s production has decreased and is no longer sufficient to meet the conventional income of the producers [4], although yields are poor. The crop requires a lot of sunlight, and row spacing is a point of contention; the Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) suggests 80 x 10 cm spacing, while the Tigray Agricultural Research Institute Humera Agricultural Research Center recommends 40 x 10 cm spacing. At the Humera Agricultural Research Center (HuARC), located at 610 meters above sea level and at 14°15′ N and 36°37′ E, a field experiment was conducted in 2017. The climate in Humera is hot and semi-arid, with an average annual rainfall of 443.5 mm, 90% of which falls between June and September. With a mean summer temperature of 28.2°C, evapotranspiration is high [8]. With less than 2% organic matter, deep Vertisol clay is the most common form of soil. As most farmers did on their fields, sesame was grown at the experiment location for four years in a row. Prior to sowing, the area was harrowed and plowed using a moldboard attached to a tractor.Nationally released sesame variety known as setit1, local sesame variety, and released mung bean variety known as Arkebe were used in this trial. Three factorial experiments set with three replicates were applied to compare monoculture cropping with intercropping, sesame cv. Setit1 with a popular local cultivar, and row spacing of 40-, 60- and 80-cm. Days to maturity were 85-95, 90-105, and 63-70, respectively, for the Setit1 cultivar, the local sesame cultivar, and the green gram cultivar named. Plant height was >1.25 m for sesame and < 0.5 m for green gram. Plots were 4.8 by 2.5 m, with 1.5 m separating blocks and 1 m separating plots. Within row plant spacing was 10 cm for both crops and green gram row spacing was 40 cm with an additive intercrop planting pattern with green gram planted between rows of sesame. Planting was on 21 July for sesame and 4 August for green gram. Plant height, branch plant-1, green gram pod plant-1, sesame capsule plant-1, and 1000-kernel weight were determined for five randomly selected plants plot-1. The number of dropped pods was counted and divided by the estimated pod plot-1 to determine the percent dropped. Seed yields were determined from the harvest of the whole plot area. The oil content of sesame seed was determined from 40 g samples with Nuclear Magnetic Resolution at Holetta Agricultural Research Center in Ethiopia. Intercrop land productivity efficiency was measured as the land equivalent ratio (LER) [9] where LER = (sesame intercropped yield/sesame sole crop yield) + (green gram intercropped yield / green gram sole crop yield). Genstat 14 (Numerical Algorithms Group, Oxford, England) was used to do the analysis of variance and the Duncan multiple range test for means separation with a least significant difference of 5% [10]. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Yield and yield component 3.1.1 Sesame length of capsule bearing zone The maximum height at which the capsules can be held—also referred to as the sesame length of the capsule carrying zone—is one of the last elements that affects sesame production. Due to the combined effects of variety, cropping strategy, and row spacing, the analysis of variance showed a significant variation in the mean length of the capsule bearing zone (Table 1). Intercropping local and setit1 types at 40 cm row spacing had the lowest length scores among the interactions (47 cm and 42 cm, respectively), in contrast to intercropping at 60 cm (71 cm) and 80 cm (76 cm) row spacing. However, Table 1 shows no discernible difference between intercropping local at 60 and 80 cm spacing. There was no discernible difference in length between the monoculture system grown locally at 40 cm, 60 cm, and 80 cm row spacing, and 69 cm, 72 cm, and 75 cm, respectively.Maximum length of capsule bearing zone (83 cm)was recorded in mono cropping setit1 variety at 80 cm, mono setit1 at 60 cm (82 cm), intercropped setit1 at 80 cm (80 cm), intercropped setit1 at 60 cm (79 cm), mono local at 80 cm (75 cm) and intercropped local at 80 cm (76 cm) which showed insignificant difference between them (Table 1). [11]Found significant … Read more

Optimizing Livestock Feed Systems: A Multi-faceted Approach for Sustainable and Resilient Animal Agriculture; A comprehensive review

  • Muhammad Khizar Hayat1,2
  • Muhammad Mohsin Mumtaz2
  • Muhammad Ahsan Ali2
  • Abu Huaira2
  • Muhammad Naeem Ur Rehman2
  • Muhammad Ali Shabbir2
  • Muhammad Usman2
  • Aqeel Afzal2

Livestock production plays a crucial role in ensuring food security and economic development, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Livestock production provides a significant portion of the world’s protein intake, with meat, dairy, and eggs being essential components of a balanced diet. In Pakistan, the livestock sector makes a significant direct contribution to the national economy. The livestock sector contributes 56.3% of the value of agriculture and 11% to the agricultural gross domestic product (AGDP) (Rehman et al., 2017). Anonymous et al., 2023 concluded that this sector provides employment to over 2 million people, with the poultry sector alone employing over 1.5 million people. Livestock contributes 19.3% to the country’s GDP, which is a substantial portion considering the sector’s importance in the overall economy. Thus, this sector generates foreign exchange earnings of around 2.1% of the total exports, with the poultry sector being a significant contributor. According to the Pakistan economic survey 2022-2023, livestock products, such as milk, meat, and eggs, are essential components of the national diet, providing a significant portion of the population’s nutritional needs. Livestock products offer essential micronutrients and macronutrients, which are vital for maintaining good health and preventing malnutrition. Livestock production increases the availability of animal-source foods, which are often more accessible and affordable than plant-based alternatives, especially in developing countries. Livestock production generates income and employment opportunities for farmers and other stakeholders along the value chain, contributing to local and national economic development. Livestock serve as an asset and store of wealth for many small-scale farmers, providing a safety net during times of economic uncertainty. Livestock production can be a key factor in women’s empowerment, as they often play a significant role in managing and maintaining livestock, which can lead to increased economic independence and social status. Livestock production can contribute to carbon sequestration through the use of grazing systems and agroforestry practices, which help maintain soil health and biodiversity. Livestock can help maintain biodiversity by promoting the conservation of grasslands and other ecosystems. Livestock are often deeply ingrained in local cultures and social structures, providing a sense of community and identity for many people (Baltenweck et al., 2020). II. Importance of Fodders and Forages for Sustainable Livestock Nutrition Fodders and forages play a crucial role in sustainable livestock nutrition, providing essential nutrients for animal health and productivity. Fodder trees and shrubs represent an enormous potential source of protein for ruminants in the tropics. They can help address the low levels of animal production in regions where 50-60% of feeds produced are dry bulky roughages, mainly cereal straws and stovers. (Tahir et al., 2024) stated that an adequate moisture promotes nutrient uptake in forages, leading to higher protein and mineral content. However, heavy rainfall can cause leaching of soluble nutrients. (Paul et al., 2020) summarized that an improved livestock feeding and forages have been highlighted as key entry points to sustainable intensification, increasing food security, and decreasing environmental impact. Forage technologies encompass a spectrum of tools and practices aimed at optimizing the quality and quantity of livestock feed. Practical technologies that can ensure the beneficial use of fodders and forages at the farm level include three-strata forage systems, integrated tree cropping systems, Agro-forestry systems, food-feed intercropping, relay cropping, alley cropping, and grazing and stall-feeding systems. For example, the three-strata forage system in Bali, involving grasses, shrub legumes, and fodder trees, has demonstrated considerable benefits in increasing forage supply and enabling higher stocking rates and live weights (Ahmad et al., 2024). Thus, optimizing the use of fodders and forages is crucial for sustainable livestock management, as they provide essential nutrients, promote animal health and productivity, and contribute to the overall sustainability of farming systems. A. Nutritional Components: The major nutritional components of fodder crops including crude protein, ADF, NDF, carbohydrates, and fats along with some minerals are well elaborated in table no.1. Crude Proteins (Rehman et al., 2023) Stated that fodder crops like berseem, lucerne, and oats can have crude protein levels ranging from 6.9-26.7% on a dry matter basis. Oilseed meals and cakes are a good source of high-quality protein for livestock. Crude protein analysis is extensively used in various fields, including animal nutrition, food science, and biochemistry. It provides critical information about the nutritional composition of feed ingredients, the quality of food products, and the assessment of protein content in biological samples. The main formulas used to measure crude protein content are: Where: A = volume (mL) of std. HCl, B = volume (mL) of std. NaOH Where: 6.25 is the protein-nitrogen conversion factor (Jones’ factor) The Kjeldahl method involves digesting the sample with sulfuric acid, distilling the ammonia, and titrating to determine the nitrogen content. This nitrogen value is then multiplied by 6.25 to estimate the crude protein percentage (Salo-Vaananen & Koivistoinen et al., 1996). Carbohydrates and Energy: (Anonymous et al., 2021) demonstrated that grains like maize, sorghum, wheat, and barley are high in energy and relatively low in fiber. Roots, tubers, and molasses are rich sources of carbohydrates and energy for livestock. The key formulas used to calculate carbohydrates and energy content in fodder crops: This formula calculates total carbohydrates by difference, subtracting the percentages of protein, fat, and ash from 100%. A similar cubic equation to the above, but for net energy for maintenance. The specific formulas used may vary, but these represent some of the common equations to estimate different energy parameters from the proximate analysis of fodder crops. The TDN and DE values are key inputs used to derive the other energy measures. Forages and Roughages as Fiber Sources: Fodder crops, pastures, and agricultural by-products like cereal straws and stovers are the primary sources of fiber for ruminants. These fibrous feeds provide the structural carbohydrates that are essential for proper rumen function and animal health. These forages contain varying amounts of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin – the main structural components of plant cell walls. The fiber content and digestibility can be influenced by factors like plant maturity, growing conditions, and processing methods. According to B.C. Agustinho 2023 … Read more

Investigating Optimum Seed Rate for Maximum Productivity Potential of Sesame (Sesamumindicum L.)  in Tigray, Ethiopia

  • Dawit Fisseha Weldearegay
  • Mizan Amare
  • Fiseha Baraki
  • Zenawi Gebregergis

Introduction Sesame (Sesamumindicum L.), one of the world’s most important oil crops, is known for having a high percentage of oil and protein (between 50 and 60 percent) in its seeds [1, 2].Ethiopia grows sesame primarily for the market and for its oil-containing seed. According to the statement, the following elements influence plant population or seed rate: row width, crop species, soil and climate conditions, and agricultural use. Genetic and environmental factors affect plant density [3], [4]. [5] shown how plant density can impact a variety of traits, including seed yield, dry matter production, vegetative development duration, light conversion efficiency, canopy design, and crop economic productivity. Thus, the first stage in increasing production is to optimize plant density, which is the number of plants per unit area as well as the arrangement (spacing) of the plants on the ground. [6] Several studies have found that the rates of sesame seeds vary by location based on specific conditions. [7] Rain-fed sesame planting produced the highest yields, 1.5 and 2.0 kg ha-1, in the Sudanese state of North Kordofan. However, [2] showed that increasing the seed rate from 6 to 9 kg ha-1 boosted seed production.. For sesame single cropping, determining the seed rate is crucial. The government suggests an extraordinarily high 7–10 kg ha-1 for rain-fed sesame output in the Humera, Tigray, North West Ethiopia, based on observation studies. Sesame broadcasting sowing density has not been studied, despite the fact that hundreds of farmers in northern west Ethiopia use the broadcasting sowing technique. Determining the ideal spread seed rate for rain-fed production in the arid lowlands of North Western Ethiopia was the aim of this experiment. Materials and methods An explanation of the materials and experimental site The Humera Agricultural Research Center carried out a field trial in the Humera and Dansh districts of northwest Ethiopia during the main cropping season of 2010 and 2011 under rain-fed circumstances. Vertisol is the predominant soil reference group in the region [8]. Prior to sowing, the area was harrowed and plowed using a moldboard attached to a tractor. Each plot’s seeds were manually broadcast-planted by combining them with sand. Since all farmers employ the broadcasting method of sowing, we did the same. There was no fertilizer. Agronomic guidelines and/or farmer practices served as the basis for weeding and other cultural practices. For 2010 and 2011, planting took place from July 10 to July 13. Three replications of the randomized complete block design (RCBD) experiment each had a gross plot size of 10 m by 5 m. “Hirhir” a branching sesame cultivar that is widely produced in the area, was utilized. The following data were recorded: plant height, number of branches per plant, length of capsule bearing zone, number of pods per plant, days of 50% flowering, days of 90% maturity, and grain yield. Once the water content was adjusted to 7.5%, the seed yield of each net plot was weighed and converted to yield ha-1 [9]. Statistical analysis and data processing Using SAS software version 9.1 (SAS Institute Inc., SAS Campus Drive, Cary, North Carolina 27513, USA), analysis of variance was used to examine the impact of seed rate on sesame grain yield. Mean separations were assessed using Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) at the 5% probability level whenever a significant effect of the treatments was found. Result and Discussion Data on grain output, days of 50% flowering, days of maturity, branches per plant, length of capsule bearing zone, plant height, and pods per plant were collected during a two-year sequential experiment on sesame seed rate in two settings (two locations). All of the recorded agronomic data show no discernible differences in the combined analysis of variance (ANOVA) of replication. Days of flowering and days of maturity are less significantly different from one another, but the combined ANOVA of environment (location) is very significant for grain seed yield, branch per plant, length of capsule bearing zone, plant height, and pods per plant. With the exception of blossoming and maturity days, which do not change significantly, all parameters show extremely significant differences between treatments alone and the environment with treatments combination (Table 2). Days of 50% Flowering In contrast to the findings of [10], who asserted that there were significant changes in the number of days needed for 50% of the plants to blossom among seed rate treatments, the number of days of 50% flowering is not substantially different for all treatments (Table 3). Days Maturity Days of 90% maturity (DM) is not significantly different for all treatments except for 2 kg ha-1is highly significantly different than 6kg/ha (Table 3). The planting rate of 2 kg ha-1 of plants had a noteworthy and favorable impact on the remaining days until a plot achieved 50% physiological maturity [10]. Branches per Pant Significant differences in primary branches per plant were found for seed rate treatments (Table 3). Generally speaking, the number of branches per plant declines as the seed rate rises. Higher seed seed-rates, like 7 kg ha-1, 8 kg ha-1, and 9 kg ha-1, differ greatly from lesser seed-rates, like 1 kg ha-1, 2 kg ha-1, and 3 kg ha-1, in terms of the number of branches per plant (BPP).According to [1, 2, 7, 11, and 12], higher seed rates resulted in lower BPP, while lower seed rates had the highest BPP.The BPP of 3 kg ha-1 differs significantly from that of other treatments (Table 3).[2] Among other things, the plants’ increased access to water and space likely helped them grow more primary branches per plant-1 at a lower seed rate. The amount of branches per plant is a critical growth component that has a big impact on output. As a result, 3 kg ha-1 is the ideal seed rate since it produced the greatest amount of BPP, which increased yield. The results of this investigation supported the findings of [13, 14], who observed that sesame plants had more branches at lower densities. In a similar finding, [15] noted that fewer branches were present in … Read more

The Control of Fall Armyworm (Spodopterafrugiperda, Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) and its Damage on Maize Using Neem Oil in South Ethiopia

  • Feyisa Bekele1
  • Kedir Bamud2
  • Wondimu Adila1
  • Yosef Berhun1

Introduction Maize (Zea mays L), is the most important crop produced in Ethiopia for Economic, livelihood, industrial, resilience to climate, and food security purposes. It is one of the country’s staple crops, grown extensively across diverse agro-ecological zones. Ethiopia ranks as the fourth-largest maize producer in Africa, following South Africa, Nigeria, and Egypt. The crop is cultivated predominantly by smallholder farmers, accounting for over 90% of production, with Oromia, Amhara, and the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples’ Region (SNNPR) being the primary maize-growing regions [1]. Maize is cultivated on approximately 2.5 million hectares of land in Ethiopia, producing an average yield of around 4 tons per hectare, significantly higher than many other African countries. This yield improvement is attributed to the adoption of improved technologies such as high-yielding maize varieties, better agronomic practices, pest management, and extension services provided by agricultural development programs [2]. However, production levels are highly variable due to factors such as rainfall dependency, pests (e.g., fall armyworm), and limited access to inputs like fertilizers and improved seeds [3] [4] The fall armyworm (Spodopterafrugiperda, Lepidoptera, Noctuidae), which is native to the Americas invaded many parts of the African continent [5] and has become a major pest of many plant species, with a strong preference for maize [6] [7]. The fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), an invasive pest, poses a severe threat to Ethiopia’s agricultural sector, particularly maize production leading to significant economic losses. FAW infestations have resulted in a national loss of approximately 0.67 million tonnes of maize, valued at $200 million, between 2017 and 2019. This pest threatens food security for millions, particularly in rural areas dependent on maize cultivation. These losses equated to the maize consumption needs of 4 million food-insecure households during this period. The fall armyworm’s impact varies by agroecology, with high infestation rates reported in mid-altitude maize-growing regions [8] [9] [10]. FAW can have many generations per year depending on environmental conditions. Adult females can live 10–21 days and lay up to 1,000 egg masses in their lifetime. Larva of fall armyworm can be identified based on inverted “Y” marking on the head area, four large dorsal spots on the second last segment in a near square arrangement, pale dorsal line, and lighter ventral and dorsal area [11] [12]. Fall armyworm feeds on whole maize plant parts and causes yield loss in severe infestation [5] [13]. In Ethiopia, FAW can cause yield losses ranging from 20% to 80%, depending on the level of infestation and management practices employed [9] [10]. [14] also reported that FAW infestation occurred on a quarter of the 2.9 million ha of land, resulting in a loss of more than 134 million tons. The pest added burden on farmers by increasing the cost of insecticide use reducing income [15] [16] and resulting in secondary fungal infection and mycotoxin levels [17] [18]. Management of the fall army appears challenging due to the availability of a diverse range of host plants throughout the year; favorable climatic conditions for its growth and development, its short life cycle, rapid multiplication, and ability to spread across large geographical areas [19] [20] [14]. Fall armyworm management strategies such as insecticides, host-plant resistance, cultural practices, crop rotation, and integrated pest management (IPM) approach are used to control FAW [21] [15] [22]. Researchers in Ethiopia emphasize integrated pest management (IPM) strategies. For instance, intercropping and climate-adapted “Push-Pull” techniques [23] have shown promise, reducing FAW infestations by over 80%. Biological control methods, including natural predators, parasitoids, and microbial agents, are gaining attention as sustainable alternatives to chemical pesticides [10] [24]. Most farmers use synthetic insecticides frequently, as the main response and effective means to control fall army infestation [7] [25] [26]. Frequent application of chemicals is unsustainable in that it negatively impacts the environment, causes a decline in biodiversity and beneficial arthropods, leads to insecticide resistance, and endangers the health of growers and consumers [27] [19].  Botanical pesticides like neem oil (Azadirachta indica) have gained attention as an eco-friendly and sustainable pest management strategy. Several studies proved the potential of plant extract as an alternative insect pest control agent [28] [29]. Research has been conducted to understand the effects of varying concentrations and application intervals of neem oil on the control of fall armyworms in maize. Neem-based bio-pesticides derived from Azadirachtaindica (from its leaves, seeds, seed oil, seed cake, and bark) are reported as well-known means for controlling fall armyworms. Neem seed and leaf extracts have great potential as a natural insecticide for the management of fall armyworms [30]. Neem affects insects by repelling and inhibiting feeding, inhibiting metamorphosis, impairing fitness and reproductive ability, and deterring egg-laying”. Oil extracted from neem has been reported to be effective in reducing fall armyworm damage on maize [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36]. In Ethiopia Research demonstrates that neem oil (Azadirachta indica) can effectively control fall armyworm when applied in appropriate concentrations and intervals. Higher concentrations, such as 1–3%, and shorter application intervals of 7–10 days are most effective in reducing larval populations [37]. Neem oil disrupts feeding, growth, and reproduction, aligning with integrated pest management principles. Despite challenges like labor intensity and environmental variability, neem oil enhances maize yield and reduces pest impact [38]. Surveys indicate that 97% of Ethiopian farmers are aware of FAW, with many adopting traditional control methods like handpicking caterpillars and applying wood ash. Maize growers in the South Omo zone mainly use frequently high doses of synthetic chemicals including Diazinon 60% EC for controlling severe fall army worm infestation. This practice speeds up resistance development against insecticides and increases the cost of production and health risks (Personal communication). In addition, existing methods alone are insufficient to address the widespread infestation, necessitating broader, scientifically backed interventions [9]. The use of neem products, such as neem oil derived from neem seeds has been expanded as a pesticide plant against FAW elsewhere under laboratory trial and should be evaluated under field conditions. Limited work exists on the effectiveness of neem oil in field-based evaluation in the study … Read more

The Role of Diversity in Agronomy and Shaping the Future of Sustainable Agriculture

  • Murugesan Mohana Keerthi

Introduction Agronomy, the science of soil management and crop production, has long been a cornerstone of agriculture, driving food security and rural development across the globe. As the challenges of climate change, resource depletion, and population growth become more pressing, agronomy faces a critical turning point [1]. One of the most promising solutions lies in embracing diversity, both within the agricultural ecosystem and in the approaches to farming. From plant biodiversity to diverse farming practices and management techniques, diversity plays a pivotal role in shaping the future of sustainable agriculture [2]. This article explores how diversity in agronomy enhances resilience, boosts productivity, and supports sustainability, ensuring that agriculture can meet the demands of a growing global population while safeguarding the environment. The Importance of Biodiversity in Agronomy Biodiversity—the variety of life forms within a given ecosystem—has long been recognized as crucial for maintaining ecosystem health. In agronomy, biodiversity not only involves the diversity of plant species but also the variety of soil organisms, insects, and microbial communities [3]. The health of the soil and the broader ecosystem is directly linked to its biodiversity, which supports critical ecological functions such as nutrient cycling, pest control, and pollination. Diversity in Farming Practices: A Pathway to Resilience Diversity is not only critical at the biological level but also in the strategies and practices employed in farming systems [4]. As the global climate changes, agronomy must adapt to increasingly unpredictable weather patterns, shifting growing seasons, and water scarcity. Diverse farming practices can provide the flexibility needed to cope with these challenges and ensure the long-term sustainability of agriculture. Economic Benefits of Agricultural Diversity While the environmental and ecological advantages of diversity in agronomy are well-established, the economic benefits are equally compelling [5]. Diverse farming systems often lead to increased productivity and profitability, particularly when viewed over the long term. Challenges and Opportunities in Promoting Diversity in Agronomy While the benefits of diversity in agronomy are clear, there are challenges to its widespread adoption. For instance, there may be initial costs associated with transitioning from monoculture systems to more diverse farming practices [6]. Farmers may also face a lack of knowledge or resources to implement new techniques, particularly in regions where conventional farming methods are deeply entrenched [7-8]. However, the increasing recognition of the importance of biodiversity and sustainability in agriculture is driving policy changes and investment in research. Governments, NGOs, and agribusinesses are increasingly supporting initiatives that promote crop diversification, sustainable farming practices, and biodiversity conservation. With the right policies, training, and incentives, farmers can be empowered to embrace diversity and reap the long-term benefits it offers. Conclusion Diversity in agronomy is not just a matter of ecological concern; it is a powerful tool for ensuring the long-term resilience, productivity, and sustainability of agriculture. By embracing biodiversity within farming systems—whether through soil health, crop diversification, or innovative farming practices—agriculture can meet the challenges of the future. As climate change intensifies and the global demand for food grows, diversity in agronomy will be key to developing resilient agricultural systems capable of providing food security while maintaining environmental sustainability. The future of agriculture lies in harnessing the full potential of biodiversity and diversity in farming practices to build a more sustainable, resilient, and productive agricultural system for generations to come. References

Media Standardization for the Propagation of Bush Pepper in Panniyur 1 Variety of Black Pepper (Piper Nigrum L.)

  • Manjari Ra
  • Malathi Gb
  • Irene Vethamoni Pa
  • Sara Parwin Banu Kb
  • Vanitha Kc

INTRODUCTION Black pepper (Piper nigrum L) known as the “king of spices” and “Black gold” is a perennial spice crop grown mostly for export in India. It belongs to the family Piperaceae. Black pepper is a staple ingredient in cuisine all around the world because of its distinct flavor and pungency. Bush pepper is a modification of the traditional black pepper vine which is grown as a compact, bush-like plant. Space-constrained urban gardening and small-scale farming are well suited for this cultivation technique. Though it originated from traditional black pepper production, the idea of bush pepper has been modified to fit today’s agriculture, particularly in areas where land is limited. Bush peppers are easier to grow and handle for both home gardeners and farmers. This is achieved through proper growing techniques. Bush pepper plants are kept at a height of roughly 1-2 mts and do not require the implementation of standards thus, allows increased plant population density, and reduced maintenance efforts [1] 2018. Furthermore, bush pepper starts yielding from the first year onwards. Harvesting is not a tedious process in bush pepper and does not require any additional tools like ladders as needed for harvesting in vine pepper. The disadvantages of using plagiotropic cuttings are poor growth rate, high mortality rate resulting from drought or leaf shedding, and a period of two-month root initiation and establishment [2]. Furthermore, bush pepper cuttings are nutrient demanding and need appropriate media for the better growth [3]. Successful bush pepper production can be achieved by producing an abundance of healthy seedlings by adopting techniques that promote the development of strong root. The key is to use of appropriate rooting medium, which can assist root development and supply nutrients. This can be achieved by using organic manures like (Farm Yard Manure (FYM), Vermicompost etc.) with effective utilization of organic waste. Keeping this in view the study aims to find the optimal media composition for the growth of bush pepper cuttings. MATERIALS AND METHOD: Experimental design The experiment was carried out between 2023 and 2024 (15 Dec 2024 -15 June 2024) for a period of 180 days at the Horticultural Research Station, Yercaud located in the Shevaroy hills in the Eastern Ghats. It is situated at an altitude of 1,515 mts (4,970 ft) above sea level. Thirteen different treatment combinations followed two times the replication of each treatment. Different media combinations- like  T1 – FYM alone (Control), T2 – Soil + FYM (3:1), T3 –  Soil + Vermicompost (3:1), T4 -Soil + Vermicompost (1:1), T5 – Soil + Coir pith   + Vermicompost (2:1:1), T6  – Soil + Coir pith + Vermicompost (1:1:1), T7 – Cocopeat + Vermicompost (3:1), T8–  Cocopeat + Vermicompost (1:1), T9 – Soil + Rice husk + Cocopeat (2:1:1), T10 -Soil + Rice husk + Cocopeat (1:1:1), T11– Cocopeat + Sand + Vermicompost (2:1:1), T12 – Cocopeat+ Sand + Vermicompost (1:1:1), T13– Cocopeat + Rice husk + Vermicompost + Soil (1:1:1:1) were prepared with different proportions of media on volume basis and Trichoderma viride was added in each media @ 5 g. Then as per the treatments, the mixture was filled in polythene bags of size 10 cm width and 15 cm length. Planting material The cuttings were collected from Panniyur-1Variety from the mother block of approximately (12.87-16.92 cm) height of pencil size thickness (1.14-2.31 mm girth) and were planted in the polythene bags. Before planting, the basal portion of the cuttings (about 2.5-3 cm) was dipped in IBA@ 2000 ppm for (<5 sec.)  to enable rooting. Then, the treated cuttings were planted in polybags containing different combinations of rooting media. The polybag containing potting media was drenched with copper oxy-chloride @ 2% to avoid fungal infestation. The cuttings in polybags are watered sufficiently so that the media is tighter. The cutting samples are immediately placed in a mist chamber with an air humidity of 80% and a temperature of 26°C. Determination of physical and chemical properties of media The physical and chemical properties of different media compositions were analyzed using standard procedure. Physical characteristics of media like EC, pH and Water holding capacity were analyzed using the methods suggested by [4], [5], [6]. The chemical properties of media like available N, P, K and exchangeable amounts of Ca, Mg and Na were carried out using the methods suggested by [7], [8].For the exchangeable amount of Ca, Mg and Na [9]. Organic Carbon analysis was carried out using the procedure suggested by the [10]. The observation was recorded for various diverse parameters of the bush pepper under different media compositions during the study like sprouting characters (days to sprouting, length of the sprout and percentage of Sprouting), number of leaves per cutting, plant height (cm), number of leaves, shoot length (cm), plant girth (mm), leaf Area (cm2), root length (cm), percentage of rooted cuttings (%), benefit-cost ratio was also calculated. Statistical analysis: The results for each characterization data were obtained from the mean procedure of two replicas and statistical analysis was performed in Randomized block design by SPSS 29 Software and Multiple comparison Test using LSD were carried out to find out the best treatments. Mean values within same column, followed by similar letters are not significantly different at p<0,05 according to LSD multiple comparison method. Mean values within same column, followed by similar letters are not significantly different at p<0,05 according to according to LSD multiple comparison method. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDIA USED IN THE EXPERIMENT RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Bush pepper is propagated through plagiotropic shoot cuttings. The disadvantage of this method is the poor establishment of the cuttings and also low availability of source of planting material. During propagation, it has been observed that the optimal media with the appropriate physical and chemical properties for successful rooting of laterals and producing bush pepper has yet to be established. To overcome, this Various media combinations with moisture and nutrient availability must be used in appropriate proportions to improve the rooting and establishment percentage of bush pepper cuttings. The physical and chemical characteristics of … Read more

Christella parasitica (l.) Lev.: a potent pharmacological and pesticidal pteridophyte

  • Swarna Kumar Dash1
  • Bishnupriya Hansdah1*
  • Jyoti Ranjan Rout2*
  • Bhagyajyoti Baral3
  • Santi Lata Sahoo3

INTRODUCTION Pteridophytes (the fern & their allies) have an extensive geologic history as pioneer plants that have occupied various parts of this globe since millions of years. This group comprises a huge cluster of seedless vascular plants & occupies a significant place in primary health care because of their cost-effectiveness. There are four particular types of habitats that ferns are found in; moist, shady forests; cervices in rock faces, especially when sheltered from the full sun; acid wetlands with bogs and swamps; and with epiphytic habit. Ferns are widespread in their distribution, with the greatest richness in the tropics, and least in arctic areas. The vast diversity was witnessed in tropical rainforests. New Zealand glorifies it by symbolizing Fern as a national emblem, with 230 species distributed throughout the country. They can be found in all ground habitats such as ravines, forest floors, slopes, grasslands, rocks and crevices, open walls and stone boulders. About 90% of the world’s pteridophytes habituated in India which is 2.5% landmass of the world.  Christella parasitica (L.) Lev. belongs to the family Thelypteridaceae. Thelypteridaceae is a monophyletic cosmopolitan family with an estimated 1190 species and 37 genera [1,2,3]. According to the GBIF (Global Biodiversity Information Facility-Copenhagen, Denmark) report, 2022 native place of Christella parasitica (L.) Lev. is in Queensland, Australia. So far as the secondary center of origin is concerned the plant is widely distributed throughout the world specifically in Australia, New Zealand, Denmark, India, China & some parts of Africa. As per the human observational data, this plant is highly available during the month of April (198,968,400), May (271,510,798), June (204,922,225) & July (196,193,852). In the global scenario waste water drainage systems create  damp environments conducive to the growth of ferns. Reproduction is generally by means of  spore in a coveted position of sporophylls. The characteristics of preridophytes that make them pioneers for their adaptability and wide distribution due to their light spore being carried by the wind so that they can colonize large numbers of degraded areas [4]. A very good example of this fern habituation was obsessed in Hawaii & Papua New Guinea.  As per the data of GBIF, this fern was introduced into these two islands through natural process that is by air from the Queensland, Australia.  In Odisha, India 4 abundant species of the genus Christella have been found such as Christella dentata, Christella parasitica, Christella semisagittata, and Christella subpubescens. The Christella dentata is widely found in Similipal, Batipathar, Mahadevjharan, Gandhamardan, Nrusinghanath, Sambalpur (Odisha) & also in tropics & subtropics of the old world, throughout India. Christella parasitica (L.) Lev. is profound in the hill forests of Odisha, particularly in the Berbera, Similipal, and Mahendragiri. It also occupies a diverse habitat throughout India, tropical Asia, Japan, Malaysia, the Pacific Islands & Australia. Christella semisagittata is a dominant species of Bengal, Assam, Myanmar, and Bangladesh but rarely found in the Koraput district of Odisha. Christella subpubescens is worldwide available, in Mahadevjharan, bank of river Brahmani, Samabalpur, Bankura, North-East India, South-West China, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, North Queensland, New Hebrides, Fiji &Samoa. Christella parasitica (L.)  Lev.  act as a producer of the food chain, regulate water management, cover soil, and prevent erosion [5]. PHARMACOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE Christella parasitica (L.) Lev. (Thelypteridaceae); was used to treat two common, chronic & autoimmune disorders, gouts & rheumatoid arthritis [6]. The ecosystem services of pteridophytes in the Southern Western Ghats of Tamilnadu showed that Christella parasitica (L.) Lev. has a potent economic value with its ornamentation. The leaf decoction is also used to clean the hair and it is also one of the best ingredients of the herbal formulation against gynaecological disorders [7]. The leaves of the fern along with the seeds of Coriandrum sativum L. crushed with salt & water to prepare a herbal drink with a single dose for 7days. This fern is located abundantly in terrestrial habitat along with partly shaded stream banks or road side. Due to the iconic & beautiful appearance of the fern it attracts the herbivores. These predators generally prefer soft, herbaceous fern species & generally the maximum herbivory has also been recorded in the high-altitude region i.e. 600-1000m. with evergreen forest. North-East India, the East Khasi Hill district of Meghalaya, traditionally utilizes the leaf & rhizome decoction of Christella parasitica (L.) Lev. for food poisoning in cattle by mixing 200ml. of the extract with turmeric & fodder [8]. Christella parasitica (L.) Lev. is also used for the treatment of sluggishness by the Ahoms, Kalitas, Tiwa, Boro, Misings, Kacharis, Hajong and Deoris tribes of Assam [9].  ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES Epidermals gland extracts of this fern Christella parasitica (L.) Lev. have anti-microbial properties [10].  The abaxial side of the compound leaves reveals that the costa, costules & veins were the sights of glands. However, the glands were denser in croziers (coiled young leaves). HPLC analysis revealed the phytochemicals comprising metabolites like terpenes, phenolic, nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites consisting of alkaloids, glucosinolates & cyanogenic glycosides. Which are raw materials for many commercial drugs. Acetone extracts of the glands were active against Staphylococcus albus, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The activity of the extracts was compared with the broad-spectrum antibiotic, amikacin. It was also quite significant that the plant extract was more potent in comparison to the antibiotic. PESTICIDAL ACTIVITIES An outbreak of Achaea janata (400-650 larva /plant) was reported during April-May 1996 in the forest division of Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India in Tamarind plantations.  Achaea janata caterpillars destroy voraciously the leaflets along with buds & flower resulting in a profound loss in fruit setting [14]. Ferns have ecdysone mimics (Phyto ecdysone) in higher quantities [15].  Ecdysteroid-induced necrotic changes both in Corpora allata (CA) and neuro-secretory cells (NS) in Achaea Janata [16,17].These ecdysteroids represent a large family of bioactive compound, comprising more than hundred potential metabolites. Research work of Christella parasitica (L.) Lev.was focused on the field evaluation of insecticidal properties on Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera litura the causal pathogen of groundnut [18]. The ethanolic extracts of fern were partitioned with hexane and chloroform, … Read more