Article Archive: Volume 3 Issue 1 2024

Tree families and physical structureacross an elevational gradient in a Southern Andean Cloud forest in Ecuador

  • R. W. Myster

Introduction Research into how gradients structure ecosystemshas a long history in ecology (1,2,3,4).  For example,studies have shownthat species are distributedrandomly across gradients (1,2,5),  gradients have various effects across latitudes, longitudes, and elevations (4), and gradients due to climate changehave increasing important impacts on ecosystems(6,7). Among gradients,spatial gradients across elevations have been especially good places to investigate this relationshipthey include abiotic drivers – for example,precipitation, humidity, and temperature – that have been shown to have fundamental effects on mountain ecosystems (Chapter8).      Within the Neotropics, a large elevational gradient is created by the Andean mountainsalong the western edge of South America.  These Andes consist of “cordilleras”(9) where at their eastern flank they drop down to Western Amazonia (10,11,12) and at their western flank to the Pacific ocean (13).Occurring onall the cordillerasbetween 1000 m and 3000 m at sea level (i.e., a.s.l) are Cloud forests(8,14).  These Cloud forests both add to the biodiversityof the Neotropics (e.g., the Andes themselves have 16.4% of all the plant species in the world:15) and significantly contribute toNeotropical hydrological and other biogeochemical cycles (16). Therefore because of the importance of Andean cloud forests to theneotropics,and because of the importance of theelevational gradient in defining those Cloud forests, I take advantage of a well-defined Cloud forest and elevational gradient in the Andes of Ecuador to sample tree(including tree ferns) species, treefamilies and treephysical structure, and then use that data to test these six hypotheses dealing with plant taxa and ecosystem structure: (1) Treespecies and treefamilies are distributed along the Andean elevational spatialgradient individualistically (2,17,18) without any pattern of clumping, (2) Some of these species and families have a mid-elevation peak along that gradientwhich may be due to the overlap of the distributions of the same tree species and treefamilies found at both higher and lower elevations (11), (3)  Many of the species and family gradient patterns can be fitted significantly tomathematical models(19,20) with a skewed unimodal patterna plateau pattern most common (21,22,23), (4)  Treephysical structure is distributed along the Andean elevational spatial gradient individualistically(2,17,18) without any pattern of clumping, (5) Many of these structural patterns can be fitted significantly to mathematical models (19,20) with a symmetric unimodal (Gaussian) patternmost common (21,22,23,24), and (6) Structural patterns distributed across the Andean elevational gradient are similar to tree structural patterns found in other Cloud forests in the Neotropics(25,26,27). Material and methods Study area The Reserva Biológica San Francisco (RBSF: 3o58’ 30” S, 79o4’ 25” W,16,28)in Southern Ecuador was where the study was conducted.  RBSF is in the Andean Cloud forest but not all of it is primary, some of that Cloud forest is secondary due to the past impacts on indigenous peoples (29,30).Soils include Dystrudepts, Haplosaprists, Petraquepts, and Epiaquents(31). Temperaturesspan 9oto17o C and annual precipitation from 2200 to 5000 mm per year(31). Field sampling In January 2019 my field assistants and I randomly chose an elevational gradientwith a south-facing aspect in an Andean Cloud forest across from Rio San Francisco – RBSF – and set up one50m x 50m (¼ ha) plotat 1900m, 2000m, 2100m, 2200m, 2300m, 2400m, 2500m, 2600m, 2700m and 2800m.  This plot size and shape have been used successfully to sample floristics and physical structure in this same Cloud forest at RBSF and at several of these same elevations (see Chapter16).  In each plot we sampled all trees (including tree ferns) at least 10 cm in diameter at breast height (dbh), measuring at the lowest point where the stem was cylindrical but above the buttresses if the tree was buttressed. We also identified the trees to family, to genus and (if possible) tospecies,using (32) and (33) as taxonomic sources and also consulting the Missouri Botanical Garden website (www.mobot.org) where voucher samplesare kept.  No research permits were necessary because the sampling was non-destructive and did not include any removal of biomass. Data analysis The number of stems for each treefamily and the number of stems for each common treespecies (defined as those species having at least 5% of thetotal stems of their family) was first compiled in each sampling plot on the elevational gradient. Next for each plot, these structural parameters were computed (1) treestem density,  number of stems in each size class: 10 ≤ 19cm dbh, 20 ≤ 29 cm dbh, 30 ≤ 39cm dbh and ≥ 40 cm dbh, and the mean dbh for all stems combined, (2) family richness, genus richness and species richness, (3) Fishers’ alpha (α) diversity (34: http://groundvegetationdb-web.com/ground_veg/home/diversity_index), (4) total basal area(∑πr2; r =  dbh of an individual stem / 2), (5) above-ground biomass (ABG: [35]), and (6) canopy closure (sum of all tree crown areas in a plot divided by the area of that plot, where crown areas are estimated from regressions on dbh [36]). The number of stems at each elevation for each common tree species, for each treefamily, and for each structural parameter was then subjected to a curve-fitting analysis (19, 20, 37) using (1) a symmetric unimodal model (i.e., a standard normal Gaussian distribution: 38),(2) a skewed unimodal model,(3) a linear modeland (4) a plateau model (21,22,23).  Each model employed least-squares regression analysis after the appropriate transformation (38,39,40,41) where the stem data did not have an upper bound (42).  The independent variable was elevation and the dependent variables were number of stems in a species or a family, or a structural parameter(software @ www.MyCurveFit.com was used).  Significant regressionsare expressed in the results as (1) the Y-intercept of the best-fit regression line, (2) the slope of that line, (3) the amount of variation explained by that line (R2), and (4) the p-value of the best-fit line. Results All 29 treefamilies had individualistic distributions, peaking at different elevations (e.g., the families Aquifoliaceae [at 2400 m] and Euphorbiaceae [at 2300 m] peaked at mid-elevation: Table 1).  Melastomataceae (with 461 stems), Lauraceae (with 430), Clusiaceae (with 182), and Rubiaceae (with 180) were most common.  Solanaceae (with 1 stem), Malvaceae (with 3), Annonaceae (with 4), Cyatheaceae (with 4), and Hypericaceae (with 4) were least common.  Clusiaceae, Lauraceae, and Melastomataceae had stems in every … Read more

Study on biocontrol aspect of potential Alcaligenes faecalis against Fusarium sp.,Concept and Approach

  • Purnima1
  • Pooja Singh2

Alcaligenes faecalis: An emerging biocontrol agent Alcaligenes faecalis was isolated from a wastewater bioprocessor in Texas, Houston, (USA) [1]. This genus is found in water, soil and in humans, generally non-pathogenic in nature. It is Gram-negative, aerobic, motile and rod-shaped which shows reactivation with Tryptone Soya broth (DSMZ medium 220a). It is mesophilic and shows optimum growth at 30-37oC. The genus is urease, gelatinase, arginine dihydrolase, beta-glucosidase negative, and cytochrome oxidase (enzyme activity) positive [2]. It belongs to Domain- Bacteria, Phylum- Pseudomonadota, Class- Betaproteobacteria, Order- Burkholderiales, Family- Alcaligenaceae, Genus- Alcaligenes and Species- faecalis. Applicability of Alcaligenes faecalis The bacteria has multitudinal aspects and cause bioremediation of phenanthrene, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, pesticides, and azo dyes. Alcaligenes faecalis also converts the most toxic form of arsenic, arsenite to a less fatal form, arsenate. It shows tolerance to heavy metals and has nanoparticle production, biocontrol, and nematicidal activity [3]. It also produces detergents, gum, and bioplastics [4]. This genus has high applicability still it remains under-represented and understudied at the whole genomic level [5]. Fusarium species: A virulent phytopathogen Fusarium belongs to the Phylum Ascomycota, Family Nectriaceae, and has a broad host range. 120 various formae speciales showing specificity to the host species are determined. It causes damage and disease in cotton, date palm, banana, and other field crops including flowers and vegetables. The disease symptoms are distinguishable viz., vascular wilt, leaf epinasty, lower leaf yellowing, stunted growth, defoliation, and plant death eventually. The only measure to control this disease to a certain extent is the application of resistant varieties [6]. Fusarium oxysporum widely occurs among root region microbes. Mostly it is saprophytic but certain species cause root rot and wilting and are pathogenic. A new approach to biocontrol activity is the application of nonpathogenic Fusarium sp. which combats the pathogenic one [7]. Fusarium sp.: A specific study of diseases occurring in plants The great loss in productivity of tomatoes is caused by wilt disease of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici. Still, no definite treatment for such a disease is reported. The pathogenic form of Fusarium oxysporum causes wilt disease classified under formae speciales depending on its host. The main reason for Fusarium wilt is its introduction in certain places rather than the local eruption of this pathogen. The soil population of the fungi is mainly ruled by asexual reproduction [8]. Musa spp. (Banana) is widely produced and consumed fruit. Panama disease (Fusarium wilt) causes a huge loss in the yield of bananas. The most effective measure to deal with this is again the use of resistant cultivars to a certain limit [9]. Vascular wilt of tomato is caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici. Symptoms include dark brown vascular tissues, wilting and apical discoloration leading to plant death. Wilt disease occurs due to mycotoxins, mycelial accumulation around the xylem, tylose production, and host defense inhibition [10]. (Table 1) [18] A.Wilting of cotton seedlings. B.Brown staining of vascular tissue. C.Streak of wilt infection in taproot. Spinach, radish, lamb’s lettuce, lettuce, wild rocket, and cultivated rocket production are adversely affected by the Fusarium incarnatum equiseti species complex. This leads to leaf spot disease in leafy vegetables [13]. Fusarium incarnatum results in crown rot disease in Cucumis sativus. White mycelia covered the young fruit leading to its withering. The disease symptom was similar to the fruit rot disease of Botrytis cinerea [14]. Postharvest disease, melon rot is caused by the Fusarium incarnatum equiseti species complex [15]. Alcaligenes faecalis as a biocontrol agent Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria are a group of beneficial rhizospheric bacteria that enhance plant growth and yield. The PGPR attribute of Alcaligenes faecalis for different crops has been least explored. It was reported by Jia R. et al (2022)[16], that Alcaligenes faecalis Juj 3 upon seed inoculation showed biocontrol activity against Plasmodiophora brassicae in cabbage and Chinese cabbage. It reduced clubroot disease in cabbage (51.4%) and Chinese cabbage (37.7%). It enhanced cabbage chlorophyll content (23.3%) and root length (49%). It also enhanced photosynthesis upon treatment in normal and Plasmidiophora brassicae-stressed environments. Antagonistic activity of Alcaligenes faecalis against Fusarium oxysporum was reported by Sayyed RZ and Chincholkar SB (2009)[17]. The antifungal activity occurred due to siderophore production by Alcaligenes faecalis. 75 µl siderophore-broth gave the best inhibition of Fusarium oxysporum [17]. Alcaligenes faecalis subsp. faecalis S18 gave the highest suppression of Fusarium wilt of tomato as observed by Abdallah RAB et al. (2016) [18]. This isolate also enhanced plant height, aerial part fresh weight, root length, and fresh weight. The antagonistic activity of the bacteria was due to chitinolytic, pectinolytic and hydrogen cyanide production Table 2 and Fig 2 [18]. Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cepae growth was inhibited by 67.46% by consortia of Bacillus mycoides and Alcaligenes faecalis [19]. Biocontrol activity of Alcaligenes faecalis N1-4 against Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium equiseti was reported by Gong AD et al. (2019) [20]. Conclusions and Future Perspective The work sheds light on the preambling to the antagonistic effect of Alcaligenes faecalis. Biocontrol aspect of Alcaligenes faecalis only against a Fusarium species viz, Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium incarnatum are described as the most virulent species affecting global crops and leading to great economic loss. Emphasis on biocontrol activity (PGPR attribute) of Alcaligenes faecalis is registered here as it is still under-explored. The most problematic content is no fungicides and other specific measures could combat this fungal pathogen. There is a great demand for such bioinoculants and biological control agents in order to deal with the wilt and rot of Fusarium sp. The product should be cost-effective and eco-friendly and promote sustainable agriculture. The future of this study demands examining Alcaligenes faecalis inoculant against Fusarium sp. under field conditions on different crops and plants. Conflict of Interest The author has no conflict of interest in publishing this work. References

Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) Markers Protocol of Bacterial Isolates from Two selected General Hospitals Wastewater (HWW)

  • O.T. Osuntokun1
  • V.O.Azuh2
  • O. A. Thonda 3
  • S.D. Olorundare4

Introduction Hospital wastewater (HWW) is the liquid waste generated by hospitals and other healthcare facilities. It differs significantly from domestic wastewater due to the presence of a wider range of contaminants, including: (1) Pathogenic microorganisms: Bacteria, viruses, and parasites that can cause disease. (2)Pharmaceutical residues: Unused or expired medications, including antibiotics, hormones, and chemotherapeutic agents.(3)Chemical disinfectants: Used to sterilize medical equipment and surfaces. (4)Radionuclides: Isotopes used in medical imaging and therapy.(5) Heavy metals: Trace elements such as lead, mercury, and copper(1). Improper treatment of hospital wastewater may pose a major threat to public health and the environment as a whole. Pathogens can spread to waterways and contaminate drinking water supplies. Pharmaceutical residues maybe harmful to aquatic life and contribute to the development of multiple  resistant bacteria. Hospitals have a responsibility to ensure their wastewater is treated effectively before it is released into the environment. There are a number of treatment methods available in the hospital settings can maybe practiced to improve hospital  waste disposal, this including: (1) Primary treatment, which involves the Removes solids and organic matter through physical processes such as screening and sedimentation.(2) Secondary treatment, which involves the using biological processes to break down organic matter using bacteria.(3)Tertiary treatment, which involves providing  additional removal of pollutants, such as nutrients and pathogens.(4) Advanced treatment processes,May be used to remove specific contaminants, such as pharmaceutical residues and heavy metals. The specific treatment methods used by a hospital will depend on the nature and volume of its wastewater, as well as local regulations (2,3). It should be mentioned that, the hospital waste water constitute a major public heath hazard, if it is not properly treated. It may become major health inpediment. Most of the hospital may be polluted and pendemic health challenges may emanate from the environmental pollution caused by waste water. For the third world country like Nigeria, we should establish a structure to treate our hospital waste(4,5). Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) Markers protocol is rapid method of identifying and characterizing of bacteria isolate. It makes use of ther abundant informations in their genetic pool to classify the bacterial isolate, by harvesting the molecular information in the 16s rRNA , it give us a leverage to rapidly identify a bacterial isolate especially where we have multiple number of isolates . this rapid techniques for identification is a robust analytical method to identify microorganism to the sub species level by generation the phylogenetic tree and compare the result obtained with the data bank(6).. In addition, 16s rRNA molecular sequencing methods have revolutionized bacterial identification and taxonomy studies, allowing microbiologist and bacteriologists alike, to classify prokaryotes based on their phylogenetic similarities(7).      Material and methods Study area Study area include two different General Hospitals, Ondo State. namely Ikare and Akungba Akoko Ondo State, Nigeria. Ondo state shares its border with other cities such as Benin, Ekiti etc. The geographic location Greenwich of Meridian Latitude and 8’15 North of the  equator of  Ondo State , Nigeria. Collection of two General hospitals waste water sample Sample bottles were rinsed and sterilized at 121oC for 15 minutes using an autoclave before sampling. The hospitals wastewater sample were collected from the effluent waste water channels, at the tip of drainage tube and transport to the laboratory for further microbiological assessment. After the wastewater sample collected from each sampling point, samples were labeled, transported to Adekunle Ajasin University Akungba Akoko, Microbiology Laboratory for bacterial analysis. Isolation of Bacterial   isolates from two different General Hospitals waste water samples 9ml of distilled water was serially diluted and dispensed into 7 test tubes and the mouth of the test tubes were corked with cotton wool, wrapped with aluminum foil and then sterilized at 1210C for 15 minutes using an autoclave. After sterilization, the hospital waste water samples were allowed to cool at ambient temperature, for few minutes.  Each test tube was then labeled as 102– 106 respectively. 1 ml of the hospital waste water samples was dispensed into 9 ml of sterile test tube. 1 ml of the stock culture was then transfer to 9ml sterile distilled water in a test tube and serially diluted in an aliquot manner up to the sixth diluents (8). Identification of Bacterial Isolates from two selected General Hospitals waste water samples using Gram staining of bacterial isolates. A flamed wire loop was used to pick a colony from a plate and a thin film smear was made on a clean grease free slide. The film was allowed to dry and was heat fixed by waving over flame of a Bunsen burner. It was then covered with crystal violet reagent for one (1) minute. The slide was placed on a rack over a sink and rinse in a slowly running tap for 5seconds. The film was flooded with iodine solution for 1 minute rinsed slowly running water for 5 seconds. It was decolorized with alcohol reagent slowly until no 43 more dye runs out. The smear was covered with Saffranin reagent for 30 seconds and rinsed in slowly running water. It was then air dried before viewing under the microscope. The stained slide was viewed with oil immersion lens x100 of the microscope. Gram negative cells appeared pink or red (9). Biochemical tests for identification of bacterial isolates from two selected General Hospitals waste water sample The bacteria isolates from the hospital waste water sample were identified by conventional methods. Briefly, a sterile wire loop a drop of normal saline were added to the center of grease-free slide and a portion of the colony were emulsified into the center of a glass slide and allowed to air dry before air fixing. Crystal violet was then applied after 3min. It was then replaced with a Gram’s iodine for one minute, prior to rinsing with water and application of 95% alcohol until no color appeared.  The Slides were then rinsed with water and Safranin for 1-2min. this was followed by rinsing and air-drying before being observed microscopically under ×100 oil immersion lens. Where interpreted that purple … Read more

Changes in the amount of photosynthetic pigments in the native Artemisia diffusa in the semi-desert rangelands of Uzbekistan under the influence of different sheep grazing intensities and different seasons

  • Shuhrat Valiyev1
  • Toshpulot Rajabov1
  • Flora Kabulova2
  • Alisher Khujanov2
  • Sirojiddin Urokov2

Introduction: Rangelands, characterized by vast expanses of natural grasses and shrubs, play a crucial role in global ecosystems [1]. The delicate balance between vegetation dynamics and herbivore activities, such as sheep grazing, is essential for maintaining the health and productivity of these ecosystems [2]. In Uzbekistan, rangelands are mainly important in providing livestock with natural fodder [3]. Rangelands make up about 50% of the total land area of Uzbekistan, more than 21 million hectares [4]. Rangelands degradation, is a serious socio-economic and environmental problem in Central Asia and Uzbekistan [5]. According to the international document of the United Nations, soil erosion under the influence of various anthropogenic factors has been observed in approximately 52 million km² of the world [6] The main cause of this phenomenon is overgrazing of pastures by livestock [7]. Overgrazing of rangelands threatens the preservation of ecosystems by trampling vegetation [8]. It increases the influence of pasture plants on soil structure indirectly, which leads to the acceleration of desertification processes [9]. Different levels of grazing lead to negative changes in the structure, physico-chemical, moisture, and organic matter of rangeland soils [10]. In the studies conducted by several foreign scientists, it was mentioned in their studies that different levels of grazing have negative and positive effects on the physiological development of rangeland plants [11]. A positive effect is that grazing is important for removing dead tissue from plant organs [12]. It has a positive effect only at moderate levels of grazing [13]. It is manifested by the activation of physiological processes in young parts of plants [14]. However, a significant difference is observed with the increase in the level of grazing in the rangeland [15]. Grazing before restoring the main photosynthetic organs leads to the disruption of physiological processes [16]. The low, medium, and heavy-intensity of livestock grazing significantly affects the morphological and physiological characteristics of plants, especially their photosynthetic capacity [17]. This is evident in changes in the amount of photosynthetic pigments [18]. Livestock grazing stress in plants is a result of eating morphological parts of plants in rangelands that are highly grazed [19] Various changes occur in response to the effects of stress on plants caused by regular grazing of livestock [20]. He pointed out that the observation of physiological stress in plants under the influence of different grazing was observed especially in plants from rangelands with a high level of grazing [21]. Understanding the impact of different sheep grazing intensities on the photosynthetic pigments of dominant rangeland plants is essential for sustainable rangeland management [22]. This study aims to investigate how varying levels of sheep grazing influence the abundance and composition of photosynthetic pigments in key plant species within rangeland ecosystems. By elucidating these dynamics, we can gain insights into the ecological consequences of grazing practices, informing land management strategies and promoting the long-term health of rangeland ecosystems. Materials and methods: The research was conducted in the natural rangelands of the Karnabchul semi-desert located in the southern of Uzbekistan during 2021-2022. The total area of the Karnabchol semi-desert is 500 thousand hectares and consists of two types of soil conditions (Fig. 1). The climate of Karnabchul semi-desert, like all the deserts of Central Asia, is characterized by dryness and sharp continentality. It stretches 120 km from west to east the average width is 40-50 km, the average height is 300 m (350 m in the central part, 450 m in the eastern part). The long-term average annual air temperature is +17.10C. The hottest air temperature is observed in June-July, 40-470C, constitutes [23]. The coldest temperatures are observed in December-February, sometimes reaching minus 20-30 0C (Fig 2). A total of 8 rangelands were selected for research according to the level of sheep grazing (initial, low, middle, and high). According to the soil conditions of these areas, it belongs to 4 types of grey-brown soils with gypseouse and 4 types of light gray soils. To determine the amount of photosynthetic pigments, pigment solutions were prepared from one-year assimilatory branches and leaves of dominant plants. Chlorophyll a at 663 nm, chlorophyll b at 645 nm, and carotenoids in mg/l were determined on an EMC-spectrophotometer (SF) (www.ems-lab.de) [24], [25]. Result and discussion: The low p-value (<0.001) suggests that there is a significant difference in pigment content among different grazing intensities.  A high F-value indicates a significant difference (Table 1) ANOVA analysis results of Artemisia diffusa pigment content in two different soil types Similar to grazing intensities, the low p-value (<0.001) indicates a significant difference in pigment content among different soil types. The interaction term between grazing intensities and soil type also has a low p-value (<0.001), suggesting that the combined effect of grazing intensities and soil type significantly influences the pigment content of Artemisia diffusa. All three factors grazing intensities, soil type, and their interaction—have statistically significant effects on the pigment content of Artemisia diffusa.Under conditions of (IG) and (LG) intensities, the amount of chlorophyll a in Artemisia diffusa was 2.4 mg/l to 2.1 mg/l. In the conditions of (MG) and (HG), it was observed that it significantly increased from 2.9 mg/l to 3.7 mg/l (Fig. 1). An increase in the amount of carotenoids was observed in Artemisia diffusa at all grazing intensities in the gypseous soil rangeland. The intensity of grazing intensities on the amount of pigments of Artemisia diffusa had a significant effect on rangeland conditions with sandy soil (Table 1). In rangelands with sandy soil, the amount of Artemisia diffusa chlorophyll a was not observed to increase uniformly in the grazing intensities, but the amount of carotenoids was observed to be high in all grazing intensities Fig. 2. It was observed that the amount of photosynthetic pigments of Artemisia diffusa under different grazing conditions decreases from spring to autumn, according to the results of our seasonal comparison (Table 2). In the summer season, the amount of photosynthetic pigments of Artemisia diffusa was significantly different compared to the spring season, and the amount of chlorophyll per 1 g of green mass was equal to 2.7 … Read more

The Art and Science of Flavour: A Journey through Aromas in Horticultural Crops

  • Anushi1
  • Budhesh Pratap Singh2
  • Ayesha Siddiqua3
  • Arshad Khayum4

Introduction In horticulture, quality refers to the characteristics of a product, such as its visual appearance, ability to withstand postharvest processing, chemical and nutritional makeup, and taste. Progress in breeding techniques has resulted in the development of fruits that possess favorable attributes for producers, distributors, and sellers [1]. However, these fruits frequently fall short in terms of their nutritional value and flavor. Understanding of the chemical composition and taste characteristics of plants has also grown, along with knowledge of the physiological, metabolic, and biochemical processes involved [2].Enhancing the flavor of fruits by breeding is a complex task due to several factors that influence the molecules responsible for this attribute, including climate, production methods, and pre-and postharvest treatments [3]. Flavor, which refers to the way taste, orthonasal, and retronasal olfaction sensations interact, is a significant characteristic of fruits and is closely associated with the preferences of individual consumers. Understanding customer preferences and striving to meet these expectations can enhance the likelihood of manufacturers successfully selling their goods and enhance nutritional intake, since more delicious fruits may substitute for less nutritious snack items [4].Recent advancements in molecular methods have facilitated the discovery of genes involved in the production of chemicals, offering new opportunities for enhancing taste. These approaches include gene cloning, enhancing certain metabolic pathways, and suppressing the expression of genes responsible for undesirable compounds [5]. Floral fragrance and color are essential characteristics of several floricultural crops. Floral volatiles, which are plant-derived compounds, are physiologically and economically important. They have a major function in attracting pollinators, defending against threats, and interacting with the environment [6]. Volatile terpenoids are very prevalent volatile organic compounds (VOCs), with selective benzenoids/phenylpropanoids being the second most numerous. Fruits and vegetables produce a range of volatile chemicals that add to their unique smells and tastes. Flavor consists of two components: the taste experienced on the tongue (sweetness, acidity, or bitterness) and the scent, which is created by various volatile substances [7].Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) greatly influence human civilization through their wide-ranging uses in the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical sectors. These compounds are utilized in a wide range of goods, including rubber, pesticides including pyrethrin, detergents containing carvone and hecogenin, antihistamines and antibiotics containing caryophyllene, and cleaning agents containing methanol [8]. Recent progress in manipulating floral aromas through terpenoid production in model plants has greatly facilitated genetic engineering in plants. Over the past decade, several research has significantly enhanced our comprehension of the functions, constituents, production, and control of flower fragrances and fruit odors [9]. Aromas in horticultural crops Fruits The presence of volatile compounds (VOCs) has a significant role in defining the quality of fruit by contributing to the unique scents and tastes found in fruits and vegetables. The chemicals encompass esters, terpenoids, alcohols, lactones, aldehydes, ketones, and apocarotenoids. The quantity, composition, and strength of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by maturing apple fruit differ based on the specific apple variety, environmental and agricultural factors, the level of ripeness, how the fruit is handled and stored, and the duration of exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation [10].Enzymes and precursors/substrates commonly release aromatic molecules. Monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes are the primary groups responsible for the aroma profile and can also have a substantial impact on the odor profile. The substantial impact of fragrance on the marketability of fruits necessitates further advancement in our understanding of this characteristic [11].Berry fruits and pomaceous fruits are two notable fruit groups known for their exceptional nutritional profiles. Berry fruits, such as strawberries, blueberries, raspberries, and grapes, are widely recognized in the commercial market for their pleasant taste, which is mostly due to the presence of fructose and volatile chemicals. Apples, citrus, peaches, and mangos are examples of pomaceous fruits that have been extensively studied for their volatile compounds in various varieties [12].Strawberries, scientifically known as Fragaria x ananassa, are widely recognized as the most popular berry fruit crop globally. They are highly esteemed for their unique flavor and rich nutritional composition. Fresh strawberries have been discovered to possess more than 360 volatile chemicals, which encompass esters, alcohols, ketones, furans, terpenes, aldehydes, and sulfur compounds. Nevertheless, the concentration and content of these substances differ based on the specific cultivar and level of ripeness [13].Apples, scientifically known as Malus domestica, are highly favored fruits. Their unique scent is the result of an intricate combination of volatile substances, which differ in terms of components, concentrations, and the level at which they can be detected by smell. Blueberries, belonging to the Vaccinium spp., are the second most economically valuable soft fruit species, behind strawberries. The fragrance of blueberries is influenced by the complex interplay of several volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are emitted by the fruit as it ripens [14].Studies have shown that the chemical composition of volatile substances differs among different varieties, especially in terms of α/β-ionone, linalool, geraniol, and (Z)-3-hexenol. Blackberries (Rubus laciniata) include a highly abundant array of volatile compounds in their volatile profile, which includes p-cymen-8-ol, α-terpineol, 2-Heptanol, 4-terpineol, 2-heptanone, nonanal, pulegone, isoborneol, 1-octanol, elemicine, 1-hexanol, myrtenol, and carvone [15].Grapes, an extensively cultivated fruit crop, possess a distinctive look and flavor that have garnered them significant commercial significance. Based on their physiochemical qualities and usage, grapes are categorized as either wine grapes or table grapes. The flavor of ripe fresh grapes plays a crucial role in determining consumer acceptance. It is often perceived as a mix of taste in the mouth and scent in the nose. The fruit volatiles of Vitis vinifera consist of a wide variety of chemicals, such as monoterpenes, C13 norisoprenoids, alcohols, esters, and carbonyls. The distinct fragrance of each grape variety is the outcome of an intricate interplay among several volatile chemicals [16].Mandarins are a notable representation of citrus, which is a crucial component of people’s diets globally. The main aromatic chemicals found in citrus fruits are terpenoids, including β-pinene, S-linalool, valencene, and limonene. Terpenoids such as d-limonene, valencene, linalool, terpinen-4-ol, and α-terpineol are important components of fragrance compounds found in ‘Dortyol yerli’ orange juice. These chemicals greatly contribute to … Read more

Exploring the growing interest in the medicinal properties of fruits and thedevelopment of nutraceuticals

  • Anushi1
  • Dhanesh kumar2
  • Abhishek Raj Ranjan3

Introduction: Fruits have long been revered not only for their delectable taste but also for their nutritional richness. However, recent years have witnessed a paradigm shift in the perception of fruits, from mere sources of sustenance to potent reservoirs of medicinal compounds [1]. This transformation has sparked a burgeoning interest in exploring the medicinal properties of fruits and harnessing their potential for the development of nutraceuticals – a dynamic intersection of food and pharmaceuticals [2]. In this short communication, we embark on a journey to delve into this fascinating realm, unraveling the mysteries of fruit-derived nutraceuticals and their implications for human health. Through a concise exploration of recent advancements, challenges, and prospects, we aim to illuminate the evolving landscape of fruit-based medicine and inspire further inquiry into this promising field [3]. Bioactive Compounds in Fruits: Development of Nutraceuticals: The development of nutraceuticals involves the transformation of bioactive compounds derived from fruits into functional foods, dietary supplements, or pharmaceutical products with demonstrated health benefits. This process encompasses a series of steps, including extraction, purification, formulation, and evaluation, aimed at maximizing the bioavailability, efficacy, and safety of the final product [11]. 1. Extraction:    The first step in nutraceutical development is the extraction of bioactive compounds from fruits. Various extraction techniques, such as solvent extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, and enzyme-assisted extraction, are employed to isolate target compounds while preserving their bioactivity. Factors such as solvent polarity, temperature, and extraction time play critical roles in determining extraction efficiency and compound stability [12]. 2. Purification:    Following extraction, crude extracts undergo purification to remove impurities and concentrate bioactive compounds. Techniques such as chromatography, filtration, and crystallization are utilized to isolate target compounds with high purity and potency. Purification enhances the bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of nutraceuticals while minimizing undesirable side effects [13]. 3. Formulation:    Formulation involves incorporating purified bioactive compounds into delivery systems or dosage forms suitable for consumption. This may include encapsulation into capsules, tablets, or softgels, or incorporation into functional foods, beverages, or dietary supplements. Formulation strategies aim to optimize compound stability, solubility, and bioavailability, ensuring consistent dosing and efficacy [14]. 4. Evaluation:    Nutraceutical formulations undergo rigorous evaluation to assess their safety, efficacy, and stability. Preclinical studies, including in vitro and in vivo assays, provide insight into the biological activities and mechanisms of action of nutraceuticals. Clinical trials further validate their therapeutic effects in human subjects, elucidating dose-response relationships, pharmacokinetics, and safety profiles [15]. 5. Regulatory Considerations:    Regulatory agencies govern the development, manufacturing, and marketing of nutraceuticals, ensuring compliance with safety and quality standards. Depending on the intended use and claims associated with the product, nutraceuticals may be classified as dietary supplements, functional foods, or pharmaceuticals, each subject to specific regulatory requirements and labeling regulations [16]. 6. Commercialization:    Successful nutraceuticals undergo scale-up production and commercialization, entering the market as consumer products. Marketing strategies emphasize the health benefits, quality, and safety of the product, targeting consumers seeking natural alternatives to conventional pharmaceuticals for health promotion and disease prevention [17]. In conclusion, the development of nutraceuticals from fruit-derived bioactive compounds represents a promising avenue for enhancing human health and well-being. By leveraging advances in extraction, purification, formulation, and evaluation technologies, researchers and manufacturers can unlock the full therapeutic potential of fruits and deliver innovative products with tangible health benefits to consumers [18]. Regulatory Landscape and Market Trends: The regulatory landscape and market trends play pivotal roles in shaping the development, manufacturing, marketing, and consumer adoption of fruit-derived nutraceuticals. Regulatory agencies worldwide govern the safety, efficacy, and labeling of these products, while market dynamics reflect evolving consumer preferences, health trends, and industry innovations. 1. Regulatory Framework:    Regulatory oversight of fruit-derived nutraceuticals varies across regions and jurisdictions, with regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in Europe, and the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) in India. These agencies establish guidelines, standards, and labeling requirements to ensure product safety, quality, and efficacy. Nutraceuticals may be classified as dietary supplements, functional foods, or pharmaceuticals, each subject to distinct regulatory pathways and compliance measures [19]. 2. Quality Assurance:    Nutraceutical manufacturers adhere to Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and quality control standards to ensure product consistency, purity, and potency. Quality assurance protocols encompass raw material sourcing, manufacturing processes, product testing, and post-market surveillance to mitigate risks and safeguard consumer health. Certification programs, such as ISO 9001 and NSF International, further validate adherence to quality standards and regulatory compliance [20]. 3. Market Trends:    Market trends in the nutraceutical industry reflect evolving consumer preferences, health consciousness, and lifestyle trends. Growing awareness of the health benefits of fruits and plant-based ingredients drives demand for fruit-derived nutraceuticals, including supplements, functional foods, and beverages. Consumers seek natural, organic, and sustainably sourced products with clean labels, free from artificial additives and preservatives. Emerging trends include personalized nutrition, immune support, cognitive health, and anti-aging formulations, catering to diverse consumer needs and demographics [21]. 4. Innovation and Product Development:    Innovation in fruit-derived nutraceuticals encompasses novel ingredients, formulations, delivery systems, and health claims, supported by advances in extraction technologies, bioavailability enhancement, and nutraceutical science. Functional ingredients such as fruit extracts, powders, concentrates, and oils offer versatile applications in dietary supplements, fortified foods, and nutraceutical beverages. Innovative product formats, including gummies, shots, and functional snacks, cater to convenience-oriented consumers seeking on-the-go solutions for health and wellness [22]. 5. Market Expansion and Globalization:    The global nutraceutical market continues to expand, driven by increasing health awareness, aging populations, and rising disposable incomes worldwide. Emerging markets in Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and Africa present significant growth opportunities for fruit-derived nutraceuticals, fueled by urbanization, dietary shifts, and lifestyle changes. Cross-border trade, e-commerce platforms, and digital marketing facilitate market access and consumer engagement, enabling nutraceutical brands to reach new audiences and penetrate untapped markets [23]. In summary, the regulatory landscape and market trends exert significant influence on the development, commercialization, and adoption of fruit-derived nutraceuticals. By navigating regulatory requirements, harnessing consumer insights, … Read more

From Seed to Succulence: Mastering Dragon Fruit Propagation Techniques

  • Anushi1
  • A. Krishnamoorthi 2
  • Pabitra Kumar Ghosh3

Introduction Dragon fruit, which belongs to the family Cactaceae, is a well-liked fruit that is both healthy and has therapeutic qualities. It is recognized for its gorgeous night-blooming blooms, which have given it local titles such as “night-blooming cereus,” “belle of the night,” and “queen of the night” [1]. Its origins may be traced back to tropical and subtropical forest regions and can be found in Central and South America. Other names for it include “noblewoman,” “conderella plant,” and “Jesus in the cradle.” [2] It is also known as “Pitaya” or “Pitayaha.” Other names for it include its other names. Its capacity to limit transpiration loss through Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) is only one of the reasons that dragon fruit has gained universal recognition. Other reasons include its tasty fruits, its efficient use of water, its early yielding potential, and its ability to yield early [3]. The regions of North Eastern, South Eastern, and Western India that are characterized by a lack of cold and dry conditions are ideal for its growth. At the same time as dragon fruit is becoming increasingly popular, it is essential to produce planting materials on a wide scale [4]. It has been demonstrated in previous research that dragon fruit may be reproduced both sexually and asexually. Several different ways of propagation, micropropagation, and other variables linked to the multiplication of dragon fruit are discussed in this article. The purpose of this study is to evaluate these diverse approaches and determine which one is the most effective technique for mass production [5]. Sexual propagation method in dragon fruits With a viability rate of 83%, the seeds of the dragon fruit are utilized for sexual propagation. Seed propagation, on the other hand, is uncommon since it takes a long time to produce a crop and results in seedlings that are less robust than those that are vegetatively propagated. When it comes to genetic research, seed propagation is necessary for achieving genetic variety, extending longevity, and developing resistance to diseases and pests [6]. The amount of published material on the multiplication of dragon fruit seeds is low. It is possible to acquire a better germination rate by sowing the seeds immediately after extraction, which results in the seeds being tiny and black [7]. The seedlings are then moved to containers until they are mature enough to be moved to the main field using the transplanting process. Even after one year has passed after the germination of seeds, seedlings are not yet ready to be transferred. Germination of dragon fruit seeds is influenced by a variety of elements, including the growth medium, temperature, and the amount of light that is present [8]. Using a combination of peat moss and sand at a temperature of 24 degrees Celsius, Ahmed et al. found that peat moss had the highest germination percentage (82%) and required the least amount of time (18 days) for germination. While germination was at its peak at 160 degrees Celsius, an increase in light intensity of 2000 lux resulted in a 19% decrease in germination [9]. Asexual methods and plant growth regulators used in dragon fruit cultivation There has been a limited amount of study done on grafting, even though dragon fruit propagation is a conventional approach. The most frequent method for propagating dragon fruits is called stem cutting, and it is the one that produces fruits that are true to type in the least amount of time. Several factors, including the size of the cuttings, the maturity or age of the cuttings, the time at which the cuttings are taken, the portion of the stem that is used for cutting preparation, the media that is used for rooting the cuttings, the application of PGRs, the fresh weight of the cuttings, and the environmental conditions under which the cuttings are raised, all play a role in determining the success of this technique [10].The size of the cuttings is extremely important for the process of rooting or initiating shoots. This is because larger cuttings have a greater carbohydrate content and a faster rate of photosynthesis, which results in the formation of roots and shoots at an earlier stage and of higher quality. It has been discovered via research that cuttings of 15 centimeters in size result in superior root and shoot growth even in the absence of IBA use [11]. It was advised that cuttings be between 35 and 45 centimetres in size for optimal growth and development. After being treated with a 10 mM IBA solution, it was discovered that cuttings of a size of 5 centimeters were an effective size [12].The age of the cuttings, often known as their maturity, is another significant component. Fumuro suggested using stems that were between one and two years old for improved growth and survival. It is important to take cuttings at a specific period of the year since the amounts of endogenous plant growth regulators, rooting cofactors, and carbohydrates in the mother plant can fluctuate greatly from season to season [13]. It is possible that fluctuations in the quantities of phenolic compounds in the mother plant and the levels of shoot RNA are responsible for the seasonal variation in the success of cuttings grown from the mother plant. Additionally, it has been found that there is a higher cambial activity during the season that has the greatest rooting percentage [14].Auxins and cytokinins are examples of plant growth regulators that are responsible for the planting of cuttings into the soil. Although there are larger levels of endogenous auxins during the peak season for cutting, the administration of these auxins from the outside is necessary for production throughout the year and for improving the roots of smaller cuttings. Extensive research has been carried out to ascertain the amounts of Indole Butyric Acid (IBA) and Indole-3-Acetic Acid (IAA) that are suitable for promoting the rooting of cuttings [15].It is possible to graft dragon fruit cuttings to acquire root and shoot characteristics of a higher grade. It is advised that different concentrations … Read more

Bioformulation: A New Frontier in Horticulture for Eco-Friendly Crop Management

  • Anushi1
  • Budhesh Pratap Singh2
  • Kushal Sachan3

Introduction There is a growing need for environmentally-friendly technical instruments in agricultural production, and global food security is being threatened by climate change. Biostimulants can be used to enhance the effects of chemical inputs, such as beneficial rhizosphere microbiomes including plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria and favorable fungi [1]. Microbial biostimulants can enhance physiological and biochemical processes that improve the absorption of nutrients, increase nutrient utilization, enhance the quality of crops, and boost plant output. When administered to plants by seed, foliar, or rhizosphere treatment, they might be categorized as formulations of microorganisms or microbial consortia [2].Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are a diverse collection of bacteria that live inside plants and can enhance plant growth and yield by producing phytohormones, antioxidants, osmolytes, volatile compounds, exopolysaccharides, and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are bio-factors that enhance plant development, enrich nutrients, and aid in phytoremediation [3]. They also protect plants from diseases and increase their resilience to salt, drought, and heavy metal toxicity. The profitability of AMF treatment has been demonstrated in numerous horticultural species, including apple, pepper, citrus, peach, lettuce, strawberry, onions, pineapple, and melon.The utilization of a combination of PGPRs (Plant Development-Promoting Rhizobacteria) and AMFs (Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi) is a very promising technique for enhancing plant development. This approach capitalizes on the advantages offered by both types of microorganisms and harnesses their combined beneficial effects through synergy [4]. The combined application of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) was found to have a greater positive impact on both the production and quality of horticultural crops compared to using either PGPB or AMF alone [5].Nevertheless, the majority of farmers have yet to investigate the potential of microbial biostimulants. Greater endeavor is required to propose and implement them as an ecologically viable method to enhance crop yield and well-being, making a significant contribution to establishing the 21st century as the era of biotechnology. Microbial biostimulants can also enhance the sustainability of medicinal and aromatic plant culture, namely in basil production, especially in situations where growth is limited [6]. Mechanisms involved in formulations Microbial plant growth promoters exert their effects through both direct and indirect routes. Direct mechanisms involve microbes producing substances that enhance the absorption of nutrients, while indirect mechanisms include the solubilization of zinc, the production of siderophores, the biosynthesis of indole acetic acid, the solubilization of phosphorus, the production of ammonia and hydrogen cyanide, the production of antioxidant enzymes, the production of phytohormones, and the biological fixation of nitrogen. Microbial biostimulants, such as fungi and bacteria, can alleviate the adverse effects of environmental pressures by generating hormone-like stimulants that have beneficial effects on plant development [7].Microbial biostimulants can protect plants by controlling the molecular processes that occur when plants interact with microbes. Additionally, they enhance the production of secondary metabolites in plants. The creation of these protective chemicals occurs via the shikimate pathway, which utilizes the enzyme Phenylalanine Ammonia Lyase (PAL) to create phenylpropanoids in response to microbial elicitation. Plants employ induced systemic resistance (ISR) as a mechanism to deal with external stressors [8].Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) stimulates the production of biosurfactants, chelating factors, avermectins, secondary metabolites, fluorescent insecticidal toxins, beta-glucanases, and chitinases to enhance disease resistance in plants. In addition, they can enhance antioxidant activity and stimulate the production of phytochemicals, regulate metabolism, and enhance the quality of crops [9]. Additional mechanisms of action encompass the production of cytokinins, ABA, ethylene, auxins, gibberlins, exopolysaccharides, organic acids, siderophores, overexpression of stress-responsive genes, expression of antioxidant enzyme activity, and activation of genes that promote growth.Applying PGPR bacteria can enhance the soil with bacterial inoculums that enhance nutrient availability, boost resistance against non-living stressors, and accumulate antioxidant chemicals to alleviate stress by neutralizing oxidative radicals [10].PGPR biostimulants are essential in regulating phytohormone signaling, antioxidant defense mechanisms, and photosynthetic processes in abiotic stress conditions such as drought, salt, heavy metals, heat, and cold stress. Research has demonstrated that these biostimulants effectively improve the growth, productivity, and nutrient absorption of plants [11]. Examples of bacteria such as Azospirillum brasilense, Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus, Burkholderia ambifaria, and Herbaspirillum seropedicae stimulate the synthesis of plant hormones that play a beneficial function in the process of making nutrients soluble and facilitating their absorption in onion plants [12].Utilizing natural microbial biostimulants derived from soil micro-organisms is a suitable method for mitigating the impact of biotic stresses on plants. Bacillus cereus, Serratia sp. XY21, and Bacillus subtilis SM21 have been discovered to enhance plant resistance against root-knot nematodes in tomato plants. Similarly, Pseudomonas aeruginosa LV has been found to enhance resistance to bacterial stem rot in tomato plants by accumulating extracellular bioactive compounds [13].Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have been discovered to enhance crop biomass following their application, perhaps by influencing the complex interaction network of phytohormones and potentially improving nitrogen utilization efficiency through the Glutamine Oxoglutarate Aminotransferase (GS-GOGAT) pathway. AMF inoculation has demonstrated the ability to safeguard Ocimum basilicum plants against the negative effects of salt stress [14]. This is achieved by enhancing the plant’s water usage efficiency, promoting chlorophyll synthesis and mineral absorption, and boosting photosynthetic metrics such as net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance [15]. The mechanisms by which AMFs exert their effects include enhanced antioxidant activity, buildup of osmolytes, upregulation of proline biosynthesis, and higher levels of Mg, Ca, and K. These processes contribute to the promotion of chlorophyll production and enzyme activity. In addition, AMF inoculation has been discovered to limit the accumulation and absorption of sodium (Na) via regulating the expression of AKT2, SOS1, and SKOR genes in the roots. This adjustment enables the roots to maintain a balance of potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+), thereby preserving homeostasis [16].Recent developments in omics science have uncovered that the use of microbial biostimulants leads to substantial modifications in primary and secondary metabolites, including amino acids, lipids, phenolic acids, and intermediates of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Additionally, it induces changes in protective mechanisms against stress. These functions encompass maintaining a balance in redox levels, regulating osmotic pressure, stabilizing cell membranes, generating energy by breaking down amino … Read more